Hermite's problem

2012-12-21T22:29:52Z

67.81.214.14: Replacing redundant "if and only if" with "only if" - /* Motivation */

{{About||common nomenclature of base quantities used in this article|Physical quantity| 4-vector modifications used in relativity|Four-vector}}

In [[physics]], '''defining equations''' are [[equation]]s that define new quantities in terms of base quantities.<ref>Warlimont, pp 12–13</ref> This article uses the current [[International System of Units|SI system]] of [[Units of measurement|units]], not [[Natural units|natural]] or [[Nondimensionalization|characteristic units]].

==Description of units and physical quantities==

Physical quantities and units follow the same hierarchy; ''chosen base quantities'' have ''defined base units'', from these any other ''quantities may be derived'' and have corresponding ''derived units''.

===Colour mixing analogy===

Defining quantities is analogous to mixing colours, and could be classified a similar way, although this is not standard. Primary colours are to base quantities; as secondary (or tertiary etc.) colours are to derived quantities. Mixing colours is analogous to combining quantities using mathematical operations. But colours could be for [[light]] or [[paint]], and analogously the system of units could be one of many forms: such as SI (now most common), [[Centimetre gram second system of units|CGS]], [[Gaussian units|Gaussian]], [[Imperial units|old imperial units]], a specific form of [[natural units]] or even arbitrarily defined units characteristic to the physical system in consideration ([[Nondimensionalization|characteristic units]]).

The choice of a base system of quantities and units is arbitrary; but once chosen it ''must'' be adhered to throughout all analysis which follows for consistency. It makes no sense to mix up different systems of units. Choosing a system of units, one system out of the SI, CGS etc., is like choosing whether use paint or light colours.

In light of this analogy, primary definitions are base quantities with no defining equation, but defined standardized condition, "secondary" definitions are quantities defined purely in terms of base quantities, "tertiary" for quantities in terms of both base and "secondary" quantities, "quaternary" for quantities in terms of base, "secondary", and "tertiary" quantities, and so on.

==Motivation==

Much of physics requires definitions to be made for the equations to make sense.

'''''Theoretical implications:''''' Definitions are important since they can lead into new insights of a branch of physics. Two such examples occurred in classical physics. When [[entropy]] ''S'' was defined – the range of [[thermodynamics]] was greatly extended by associating [[Order and disorder (physics)|chaos and disorder]] with a numerical quantity that could relate to energy and temperature, leading to the understanding of the [[Second law of thermodynamics|second]] [[Laws of thermodynamics|thermodynamic law]] and [[statistical mechanics]].<ref>{{cite book| author=P.W. Atkins| title=Physical chemistry| publisher=Oxford University Press|edition=2nd| year=1978|pages=124–131| isbn=0-19-855148-7}}</ref>

Also the [[Action (physics)|action]] [[Functional (mathematics)|functional]] (also written ''S'') (together with [[generalized coordinates]] and [[Canonical coordinates|momenta]] and the [[Lagrangian]] function), initially an alternative formulation of [[classical mechanics]] to [[Newton's laws]], now extends the range of modern physics in general – notably [[quantum mechanics]], [[particle physics]], and [[general relativity]].<ref>{{cite book| author=E. Abers| title=Quantum Mechanics| publisher=Addison Wesley|edition=2nd| year=2004|page=14| isbn=978-013-146100-0}}</ref>

'''''Analytical convenience:''''' They allow other equations to be written more compactly and so allow easier mathematical manipulation; by including a parameter in a definition, occurrences of the parameter can be absorbed into the substituted quantity and removed from the equation.<ref>{{cite book| author=P.M. Whelan, M.J. Hodgeson| title=Essential Principles of Physics| publisher=John Murray|edition=2nd| year=1978 | isbn=0-7195-3382-1}}</ref>

;Example

As an example consider [[Ampère's circuital law]] (with Maxwell's correction) in integral form for an arbitrary current carrying [[Electrical conductor|conductor]] in a [[vacuum]] (so zero [[magnetization]] due medium, i.e. '''M''' = '''0'''):<ref>{{cite book|title=Electromagnetism|edition=2nd|author=I.S. Grant, W.R. Phillips, Manchester Physics|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2008|pages=186–188|isbn=978-0-471-92712-9}}</ref>

:<math> \oint_S \mathbf{B} \cdot {\rm d}\mathbf{l}= \mu_0 \oint_S \left ( \mathbf{J} + \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}}{\partial t} \right ) \cdot {\rm d}\mathbf{A} \,\!</math>

using the constitutive definition

:<math> \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \mathbf{H}, \,\!</math>

and the current density definition

:<math> I = \oint_S \mathbf{J} \cdot {\rm d} \mathbf{A} , \,\!</math>

similarly for the [[displacement current]] density

:<math> \mathbf{J}_{\rm d} = \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}}{\partial t} \,\!</math> leading to the displacement current <math> I_d = \oint_S \mathbf{J}_{\rm d} \cdot {\rm d}\mathbf{A} , \,\!</math>

we have

:<math> \oint_S \mathbf{B} \cdot {\rm d}\mathbf{l}= \mu_0 \oint_S \mathbf{J} \cdot {\rm d}\mathbf{A} + \mu_0 \oint_S \mathbf{J} _{\rm d} \cdot {\rm d}\mathbf{A}, \,\!</math>

:<math> \oint_S \mathbf{H} \cdot {\rm d}\mathbf{l}= I + I_d,\,\!</math>

which is simpler to write, even if the equation is the same.

'''''Ease of comparison:''''' They allow comparisons of measurements to be made when they might appear ambiguous and unclear otherwise.

;Example

A basic example is mass density. It is not clear how compare how much matter constitutes a variety of substances given only their masses or only their volumes. Given both for each substance, the mass ''m'' per unit volume ''V'', or mass density ''ρ'' provides a meaningful comparison between the substances, since for each, a fixed amount of volume will correspond to an amount of mass depending on the substance. To illustrate this; if two substances A and B have masses ''mA'' and ''mB'' respectively, occupying volumes ''VA'' and ''VB'' respectively, using the definition of mass density gives:

:''ρ''A = ''m''A / ''V''A , ''ρ''B = ''m''B / ''V''B

following this can be seen that:

*if ''m''A > ''m''B or ''m''A < ''m''B and ''V''A = ''V''B, then ''ρ''A > ''ρ''B or ''ρ''A < ''ρ''B,
*if ''m''A = ''m''B and ''V''A > ''V''B or ''V''A < ''V''B, then ''ρ''A < ''ρ''B or ''ρ''A > ''ρ''B,
*if ''ρ''A = ''ρ''B, then ''m''A / ''V''A = ''m''B / ''V''B so ''m''A / ''m''B = ''V''A / ''V''B, demonstrating that if ''m''A > ''m''B or ''m''A < ''m''B, then ''V''A > ''V''B or ''V''A < ''V''B.

Making such comparisons without using mathematics logically in this way would not be as systematic.

==Construction of defining equations==

===Scope of definitions===

Defining equations are normally formulated in terms of [[elementary algebra]] and [[calculus]], [[Vector calculus|vector algebra and calculus]], or for the most general applications [[Tensor|tensor algebra and calculus]], depending on the level of study and presentation, complexity of topic and scope of applicability. Functions may be incorporated into a definition, in for calculus this is necessary. Quantities may also be [[complex number|complex]]-valued for theoretical advantage, but for a physical measurement the real part is relevant, the imaginary part can be discarded. For more advanced treatments the equation may have to be written in an equivalent but alternative form using other defining equations for the definition to be useful. Often definitions can start from elementary algebra, then modify to vectors, then in the limiting cases calculus may be used. The various levels of maths used typically follows this pattern.

Typically definitions are explicit, meaning the defining quantity is the subject of the equation, but sometimes the equation is not written explicitly – although the defining quantity can be solved for to make the equation explicit. For vector equations, sometimes the defining quantity is in a cross or dot product and cannot be solved for explicitly as a vector, but the components can.

[[File:General flux diagram.svg|thumb|400px|[[Flux]] '''F''' through a [[surface]], d'''S''' is the [[Differential (infinitesimal)|differential]] [[vector area]] element, ''n'' is the [[unit normal]] to the surface. For the physical examples here, [[current density]] '''J''' or [[magnetic field]] '''B''' would be '''F''' in the diagram.]]
[[File:Angular momentum definition.svg|thumb|right|300px|''300px''|Angular momentum; scalar and vector components.]]

;Examples

Electric current density is an example spanning all of these methods, [[Angular momentum]] is an example which doesn't require calculus. See the classical mechanics section below for nomenclature and diagrams to the right.

'''''Elementary algebra'''''

Operations are simply multiplication and division. Equations may be written in a product or quotient form, both of course equivalent.

:{|
|-valign="top"
! scope="col" width="100" |
! scope="col" width="100" | Angular momentum
! scope="col" width="100" | Electric current density
|-valign="top"
| Quotient form
| <math> p = \frac{L}{r} \,\!</math>
| <math> J = \frac{I}{A} \,\!</math>
|-valign="top"
| Product form
| <math> L = pr \,\!</math>
| <math> I = J A \,\!</math>
|-
|}

'''''Vector algebra'''''

There is no way to divide a vector by a vector, so there are no product or quotient forms.

:{|
|-valign="top"
! scope="col" width="100" |
! scope="col" width="350" | Angular momentum
! scope="col" width="150" | Electric current density
|-valign="top"
| Quotient form
| N/A
| <math> \mathbf{J} \cdot \mathbf{\hat{n}} = \frac{I}{A} \,\!</math>
|-valign="top"
| Product form
| Starting from

<math> L = p r , \,\!</math>

since '''L''' = '''0''' when '''p''' and '''r''' are [[Parallel (geometry)|parallel]] or [[Antiparallel (mathematics)|antiparallel]], and is a maximum when perpendicular, so that the only component of '''p''' which contributes to '''L''' is the tangential |'''p'''| sin ''θ'', the magnitude of angular momentum ''L'' should be re-written as

<math> L = p r \sin \theta .\,\!</math>

Since '''r''', '''p''' and '''L''' form a right-hand triad, this leads to the vector form

<math> \mathbf{L} = \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{p} .\,\!</math>
| <math> \mathbf{J} \cdot \mathbf{\hat{n}} A = I ,\,\!</math>

<math> \mathbf{J} \cdot\mathbf{A} = I , \,\!</math>
|-
|}

'''''Elementary calculus'''''

:The arithmetic operations are modified to the limiting cases of differentiation and integration. Equations can be expressed in these equivalent and alternative ways.

:{|
! scope="col" width="100" |
! scope="col" width="200" | Current density
|-valign="top"
| Differential form
| <math> J = \lim_{A \rightarrow 0} \frac{I}{A} = \frac{\mathrm{d}I}{\mathrm{d}A} \,\!</math>
|-valign="top"
| Integral form
| <math> I = \lim_{A_i \rightarrow 0} \sum_i J A_i = \int_S J {\mathrm{d} A} \,\!</math>

where d''A'' means an [[Differential (infinitesimal)|differential]] [[area element]] (see also [[surface integral]]).

Alternatively for integral form

<math> \mathrm{d} I = J {\mathrm{d} A} , \,\!</math>

<math> I = \int_S J {\mathrm{d} A} . \,\!</math>
|-
|}

'''''Vector calculus'''''

:{|
! scope="col" width="100" |
! scope="col" width="150" | Current density
|-valign="top"
|Differential form
||<math> \mathbf{J} \cdot \mathbf{\hat{n}} = \frac{\mathrm{d}I}{\mathrm{d}A} \,\!</math>
|-valign="top"
| Integral form
|| <math> I = \int_S \mathbf{J} \cdot \mathrm{d} \mathbf{A} \,\!</math>
where d'''A''' = '''n'''d''A'' is the differential [[vector area]].
|-
|}

'''''Tensor analysis'''''

Vectors are rank-1 [[tensors]]. The formulae below are no more than the vector equations in the language of tensors.
:{|
|-valign="top"
! scope="col" width="100" |
! scope="col" width="350" | Angular momentum
! scope="col" width="150" | Electric current density
|-valign="top"
| Differential form
| N/A
| <math> J_i n_i = \frac{\mathrm{d} I}{\mathrm{d} A} \,\!</math>
|-valign="top"
| Product/integral form
| Starting from

<math> \mathbf{L} = \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{p} \,\!</math>

the components are ''Li'', ''rj'', ''pi'', where ''i, j, k'' are each dummy indices each taking values 1, 2, 3, using the [[Cross product#Alternative ways to compute the cross product|identity from tensor analysis]]

<math> \mathbf{a} = \mathbf{b} \times \mathbf{c}, \quad a_i = \epsilon_{ijk} b_j c_k ,\,\!</math>

where ''εijk'' is the [[Levi-Civita symbol|permutation/Levi-Cita tensor]], leads to

<math> L_i = \epsilon_{ijk} r_j p_k .\,\!</math>

| Using the [[Einstein summation convention]],

<math> J_i n_i \mathrm{d} A = \mathrm{d} I \,\!</math>

<math> \int_S J_i \mathrm{d} A_i = I \,\!</math>
|-
|}

===Multiple choice definitions===

Sometimes there is still freedom within the chosen units system, to define one or more quantities in more than one way. The situation splits into two cases:<ref name="P.M. Whelan, M.J. Hodgeson 1978 6">{{cite book| author=P.M. Whelan, M.J. Hodgeson| title=Essential Principles of Physics| publisher=John Murray|edition=2nd| year=1978|page=6| isbn=0-7195-3382-1}}</ref>

'''''Mutually exclusive definitions:''''' There are a number of possible choices for a quantity to be defined in terms of others, but only one can be used and not the others. Choosing more than one of the exclusive equations for a definition leads to a contradiction – one equation might demand a quantity ''X'' to be ''defined'' in one way ''using another'' quantity ''Y'', while another equation requires the ''reverse'', ''Y'' be defined using ''X'', but then another equation might falsify the use of both ''X'' and ''Y'', and so on. The mutual disagreement makes it impossible to say which equation defines what quantity.

'''''Equivalent definitions:''''' Defining equations which are equivalent and self-consistent with other equations and laws within the physical theory, simply written in different ways.

There are two possibilities for each case:

'''''One defining equation – one defined quantity:''''' A defining equation is used to define a single quantity in terms of a number of others.

'''''One defining equation – a number of defined quantities:''''' A defining equation is used to define a number of quantities in terms of a number of others. A single defining equation shouldn't contain ''one'' quantity defining ''all other'' quantities in the ''same equation'', otherwise contradictions arise again. There is no definition of the defined quantities separately since they are defined by a single quantity in a single equation. Furthermore the defined quantities may have already been defined before, so if another quantity defines these in the same equation, there is a clash between definitions.

Contradictions can be avoided by defining quantities ''successively''; the ''order'' in which quantities are defined must be accounted for. Examples spanning these instances occur in [[electromagnetism]], and are given below.

[[File:Magnetic force particles.svg|thumb|200px|[[Differential (infinitesimal)|Differential]] [[magnetic force]] d'''F''' due to a small charge element d''q'' constituting an [[electric current]] ''I'' ([[conventional current]] is used). The force must be [[line integral|line-integrated]] along the path of current flow, with respect to the vector [[line element]] d'''r'''.]]

;Examples

'''''Mutually exclusive definitions:'''''

The [[magnetic field|magnetic induction field]] '''B''' can be defined in terms of [[electric charge]] ''q'' or [[Electric current|current]] ''I'', and the [[Lorentz force]] (magnetic term) '''F''' experienced by the charge carriers due to the field,

:<math> \begin{align} \mathbf{F} & = q \left ( \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B} \right ) \\
& = \left ( \int I \mathrm{d} t \right ) \left ( \frac{\mathrm{d}\mathbf{r}}{\mathrm{d} t} \times \mathbf{B} \right ) \\
& = \left ( \int I \mathrm{d} t \frac{\mathrm{d}\mathbf{r}}{\mathrm{d} t} \right ) \times \mathbf{B} \\
& = I \left ( \int \mathrm{d}\mathbf{r} \right ) \times \mathbf{B} \\
& = I \left ( \mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{B} \right ),
\end{align}
\,\!</math>

where <math> \mathbf{l} = \int \mathrm{d}\mathbf{r} \,\!</math> is the change in position traversed by the charge carriers (assuming current is independent of position, if not so a line integral must be done along the path of current) or in terms of the magnetic flux ''ΦB'' through a surface ''S'', where the area is used as a scalar ''A'' and vector: <math> \mathbf{A} = A\mathbf{\hat{n}} \,\!</math> and <math> \mathbf{\hat{n}} \,\!</math> is a unit normal to ''A'', either in differential form

:<math> \mathbf{B} \cdot \mathbf{\hat{n}} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\Phi_B}{\mathrm{d}A} ,\,\!</math>

or integral form,

:<math> \mathbf{B} \cdot \mathbf{\hat{n}} \mathrm{d}A = \mathrm{d}\Phi_B ,\,\!</math>

:<math> \Phi_B = \int_S \mathbf{B} \cdot \mathrm{d}\mathbf{A} .\,\!</math>

However, only one of the above equations can be used to define '''B''' for the following reason, given that '''A''', '''r''', '''v''', and '''F''' have been defined elsewhere unambiguously (most likely mechanics and [[Euclidean geometry]]).

If the force equation defines '''B''', where ''q'' or ''I'' have been previously defined, then the flux equation defines Φ''B'', since '''B''' has been previously defined unambiguously. If the flux equation defines '''B''', where ''ΦB'', the force equation may be a defining equation for ''I'' or ''q''. Notice the contradiction when '''B''' both equations define '''B''' simultaneously and when '''B''' is not a base quantity; the force equation demands that ''q'' or ''I'' be defined elsewhere while at the same time the flux equation demands that ''q'' or ''I'' be defined by the force equation, similarly the force equation requires Φ''B'' to be defined by the flux equation, at the same time the flux equation demands that Φ''B'' is defined elsewhere. For both equations to be used as definitions simultaneously, '''B''' must be a base quantity so that '''F''' and Φ''B'' can be defined to stem from '''B''' unambiguously.<ref name="P.M. Whelan, M.J. Hodgeson 1978 6"/>

'''''Equivalent definitions:'''''

Another example is [[inductance]] ''L'' which has two equivalent equations to use as a definition.<ref>{{cite book| author=P.M. Whelan, M.J. Hodgeson| title=Essential Principles of Physics| publisher=John Murray|edition=2nd| year=1978|page=405| isbn=0-7195-3382-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Electromagnetism|edition=2nd|author=I.S. Grant, W.R. Phillips, Manchester Physics|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2008|pages=231–234|isbn=978-0-471-92712-9}}</ref>

In terms of ''I'' and ''ΦB'', the inductance is given by

:<math> L = N \frac{\mathrm{d}\Phi_B}{\mathrm{d} I} ,\,\!</math>

in terms of ''I'' and induced emf ''V''

:<math> V = - L \frac{\mathrm{d}I}{\mathrm{d} t} .\,\!</math>

These two are equivalent by [[Faraday's law of induction]]:

:<math> V = - N \frac{\mathrm{d}\Phi_B}{\mathrm{d} t} , \,\!</math>

:<math> V {\mathrm{d} t} = - N \mathrm{d}\Phi_B , \,\!</math>

substituting into the first definition for ''L''

:<math> L = - V \frac{{\mathrm{d} t}}{\mathrm{d} I} \,\!</math>

:<math> V = - L \frac{\mathrm{d}I}{\mathrm{d} t} \,\!</math>

and so they are not mutually exclusive.

'''''One defining equation – a number of defined quantities'''''

Notice that ''L'' cannot define ''I'' and ''ΦB'' simultaneously - this makes no sense. ''I'', ''ΦB'' and ''V'' have most likely all been defined before as (''ΦB'' given above in flux equation);

:<math> V = \frac{\mathrm{d}W}{\mathrm{d} q} , \quad I = \frac{\mathrm{d}q}{\mathrm{d} t} ,\,\!</math>

where ''W'' = work done on charge ''q''. Furthermore there is no definition of either ''I'' or ''ΦB'' separately – because ''L'' is defining them in the same equation.

However, using the [[Lorentz force#Lorentz force law as the definition of E and B|Lorentz force]] for the [[electromagnetic field]]:<ref name=Jackson20>See, for example, Jackson p777-8.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Gravitation|author=J.A. Wheeler, C. Misner, K.S. Thorne|publisher=W.H. Freeman & Co|year=1973|pages=72–73|isbn=0-7167-0344-0}}. These authors use the Lorentz force in tensor form as definer of the [[electromagnetic tensor]] ''F'', in turn the fields '''E''' and '''B'''.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Electromagnetism|ediition=2nd|author=I.S. Grant, W.R. Phillips, Manchester Physics|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2008|page=122|isbn=978-0-471-92712-9}}</ref>

:<math> \mathbf{F} = q \left [ \mathbf{E} + \left ( \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B} \right )\right ] ,\,\!</math>

as a single defining equation for the [[electric field]] '''E''' and magnetic field '''B''' is allowed, since '''E''' and '''B''' are not only defined by one variable, but ''three''; force '''F''', velocity '''v''' and charge ''q''. This is consistent with isolated definitions of '''E''' and '''B''' since '''E''' is defined using '''F''' and ''q'':

:<math> \mathbf{E} = \mathbf{F}/q .\,\!</math>

and '''B''' defined by '''F''', '''v''', and ''q'', as given above.

==Limitations of definitions==

'''''Definitions vs. functions:''''' Defining quantities can vary as a function of parameters other than those in the definition. A defining equation only defines how calculate the defined quantity, it ''cannot'' describe how the quantity varies as a function of other parameters since the function would vary from one application to another.

;Examples

Mass density ''ρ'' is defined using mass ''m'' and volume ''V'' by but can vary as a function of temperature ''T'' and pressure ''p'', ''ρ'' = ''ρ''(''p'', ''T'')

The [[angular frequency]] ''ω'' of [[wave propagation]] is defined using the [[frequency]] (or equivalently time period ''T'') of the oscillation, as a function of [[wavenumber]] ''k'', ''ω'' = ''ω''(''k''). This is the ''[[dispersion relation]]'' for wave propagation.

The [[coefficient of restitution]] for an object colliding is defined using the speeds of separation and approach with respect to the collision point, but depends on the nature of the surfaces in question.

'''''Definitions vs. theorems''''': There is a very important difference between defining equations and general or derived results, theorems or laws. Defining equations ''do '''not''' find out '''any''' information'' about a physical system, they simply re-state one measurement in terms of others. Results, theorems, and laws, on the other hand ''do'' provide meaningful information, if only a little, since they represent a calculation for a quantity given other properties of the system, and describe how the system behaves as variables are changed.

;Examples

An example was given above for Ampere's law. Another is the conservation of momentum for ''N''1 initial particles having initial momenta '''p'''i where ''i'' = 1, 2 ... ''N''1, and ''N''2 final particles having final momenta '''p'''i (some particles may explode or adhere) where ''j'' = 1, 2 ... ''N''2, the equation of conservation reads:

:<math> \sum_i^{N_1}\mathbf{p}_{\rm i} = \sum_j^{N_2}\mathbf{p}_{\rm j} \,\!</math>

Using the definition of momentum in terms of velocity:

:<math> \mathbf{p} = m \mathbf{v} \,\!</math>

so that for each particle:

:<math> \mathbf{p}_{\rm i} = m_i \mathbf{v}_{\rm i} \,\!</math> and <math> \mathbf{p}_{\rm j} = m_j \mathbf{v}_{\rm j} \,\!</math>

the conservation equation can be written as

:<math> \sum_i^{N_1}m_i \mathbf{v}_{\rm i} = \sum_j^{N_2} m_i \mathbf{v}_{\rm i} .\,\!</math>

It is identical to the previous version. No information is lost or gained by changing quantities when definitions are substituted, but the equation itself does give information about the system.

==One-off definitions==

Some equations, typically results from a derivation, include useful quantities which serve as a one-off definition within its scope of application.

;Examples

In [[special relativity]], [[Mass in special relativity#The relativistic mass concept|relativistic mass]] has support and detraction by physicists.<ref>{{cite book| author=H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman| title=University Physics – With Modern Physics| publisher=Addison-Wesley (Pearson International)|edition=12th|pages=1290–1291|year=2008| isbn=0-321-50130-6}}</ref> It is defined as:

:<math> m = \gamma m_0 \,\!</math>

where ''m''0 is the [[rest mass]] of the object and γ is the [[Lorentz factor]]. This makes some quantities such as momentum '''p''' and energy ''E'' of a massive object in motion easy to obtain from other equations simply by using relativistic mass:

:<math> \mathbf{p} = m\mathbf{v} \rightarrow \mathbf{p} = \gamma m_0 \mathbf{v} </math>
:<math> E = mc^2 \rightarrow E = \gamma m_0 c^2 </math>

However, this does ''not'' always apply, for instance the [[kinetic energy]] ''T'' and [[force]] '''F''' of the same object is ''not'' given by:

:<math> T = \frac{m}{2}\mathbf{v}\cdot\mathbf{v} \nrightarrow T = \frac{\gamma m_0}{2}\mathbf{v}\cdot\mathbf{v} </math>
:<math> \mathbf{F} = m\mathbf{a} \nrightarrow \mathbf{F} = \gamma m_0 \mathbf{a} </math>

The Lorentz factor has a deeper significance and origin, and is used in terms of [[proper time]] and [[coordinate time]] with [[four-vector]]s. The correct equations above are consequence of the applying definitions in the correct order.

[[File:Magnetic deflection helical path.svg|thumb|right|300px|''300px''|Magnetic field deflecting a charged particle, pseudo-defining '''magnetic rigidity''' for the particle.]]

In electromagnetism, a [[charged particle]] (of mass ''m'' and charge ''q'') in a uniform magnetic field '''B''' is deflected by the field in a circular helical arc at velocity '''v''' and [[Radius of curvature (mathematics)|radius of curvature]] '''r''', where the helical trajectory inclined at an angle ''θ'' to '''B'''. The [[magnetic force]] is the [[centripetal force]], so the force '''F''' acting on the particle is;

:<math> \mathbf{F} = - \frac{m \left ( \mathbf{v}\cdot{\mathbf{v}} \right ) \mathbf{\hat{r}} }{\left | \mathbf{r} \right |} = q \left ( \mathbf{v}\times \mathbf{B}\right ),\,\!</math>

reducing to scalar form and solving for |'''B'''||'''r'''|;

:<math> \frac{m \left | \mathbf{v} \right |^2 }{\left | \mathbf{r} \right |} = q \left | \mathbf{v} \right | \left | \mathbf{B} \right | \sin \theta, \,\!</math>

:<math> \frac{m \left | \mathbf{v} \right | }{\left | \mathbf{r} \right |} = q \left | \mathbf{B} \right | \sin \theta, \,\!</math>

:<math> \left | \mathbf{B} \right | \left | \mathbf{r} \right | = \frac{m \left | \mathbf{v} \right | }{ q \sin \theta} , \,\!</math>

serves as the definition for the '''magnetic rigidity''' of the particle.<ref>{{cite book|title=Electromagnetism|edition=2nd|author=I.S. Grant, W.R. Phillips, Manchester Physics|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2008|isbn=978-0-471-92712-9}}
</ref> Since this depends on the mass and charge of the particle, it is useful for determining the extent a particle deflects in a '''B''' field, which occurs experimentally in [[mass spectrometry]] and [[particle detector]]s.

==See also==

*[[Defining equation (physical chemistry)]]
*[[Constitutive equation]]
*[[List of equations in classical mechanics]]
*[[List of relativistic equations]]
*[[List of equations in fluid mechanics]]
*[[Table of thermodynamics equations]]
*[[List of equations in gravitation]]
*[[List of electromagnetism equations]]
*[[List of photonics equations]]
*[[List of equations in quantum mechanics]]
*[[List of equations in nuclear and particle physics]]

==Footnotes==

{{Reflist}}

==Sources==

* {{cite book| author=P.M. Whelan, M.J. Hodgeson| title=Essential Principles of Physics| publisher=John Murray|edition=2nd| year=1978 | isbn=0-7195-3382-1}}
* {{cite book| author=G. Woan| title=The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas| publisher=Cambridge University Press|edition=| year=2010| isbn=978-0-521-57507-2}}
* {{cite book| author=A. Halpern| title=3000 Solved Problems in Physics, Schaum Series| publisher=Mc Graw Hill|edition=| year=1988| isbn=978-0-07-025734-4}}
* {{cite book|pages=12–13| author=R.G. Lerner, G.L. Trigg| title=Encyclopaedia of Physics| publisher=VHC Publishers, Hans Warlimont, Springer|edition=2nd| year=2005| isbn=978-0-07-025734-4}}
* {{cite book|page=| author=C.B. Parker| title=McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia of Physics| publisher=McGraw Hill|edition=2nd| year=1994| isbn=0-07-051400-3}}
* {{cite book|page=| author=P.A. Tipler, G. Mosca| title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: With Modern Physics| publisher=W.H. Freeman and Co|edition=6th| year=2008| isbn=9-781429-202657}}
* {{cite book|title=Analytical Mechanics|author=L.N. Hand, J.D. Finch|publisher=Cambridge University Press, |year=2008|isbn=978-0-521-57572-0}}
* {{cite book|title=Mechanics, Vibrations and Waves|author=T.B. Arkill, C.J. Millar|publisher=John Murray, |year=1974|isbn=0-7195-2882-8}}
* {{cite book|title=The Physics of Vibrations and Waves|edition=3rd|author=H.J. Pain|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, |year=1983|isbn=0-471-90182-2}}
* {{cite book|title=Dynamics and Relativity|author=J.R. Forshaw, A.G. Smith|publisher=Wiley, |year=2009|isbn=978-0-470-01460-8}}
* {{cite book|title=Electricity and Modern Physics |edition=2nd|author=G.A.G. Bennet|publisher=Edward Arnold (UK)|year=1974|isbn=0-7131-2459-8}}
* {{cite book|title=Electromagnetism|edition=2nd|author=I.S. Grant, W.R. Phillips, Manchester Physics|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2008|isbn=978-0-471-92712-9}}
* {{cite book|title=Introduction to Electrodynamics|edition=3rd |author=D.J. Griffiths|publisher=Pearson Education, Dorling Kindersley, |year=2007|isbn=81-7758-293-3}}

==Further reading==

* {{cite book|title=Physics with Modern Applications|author=L.H. Greenberg|publisher=Holt-Saunders International W.B. Saunders and Co|year=1978|isbn=0-7216-4247-0}}
* {{cite book|title=Principles of Physics|author=J.B. Marion, W.F. Hornyak|publisher=Holt-Saunders International Saunders College|year=1984|isbn=4-8337-0195-2}}
* {{cite book|title=Concepts of Modern Physics|edition=4th|author=A. Beiser|publisher=McGraw-Hill (International)|year=1987|isbn=0-07-100144-1}}
* {{cite book|title=University Physics – With Modern Physics|edition=12th|author=H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman|publisher=Addison-Wesley (Pearson International)|year=2008|isbn=0-321-50130-6}}

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