Faraday constant

2014-01-31T02:29:09Z

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{{cosmology}}
'''[[Timeline]] of [[galaxy|galaxies]], [[galaxy cluster|clusters of galaxies]], and [[large-scale structure of the cosmos]]'''

==Pre-20th Century==
* 5th century BC — [[Democritus]] proposes that the bright band in the night sky known as the [[Milky Way]] might consist of [[star]]s,
* 4th century BC — [[Aristotle]] believes the Milky Way to be caused by "the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous and close together" and that the "ignition takes place in the upper part of the [[atmosphere]], in the [[Sublunary sphere|region of the world which is continuous with the heavenly motions]]",<ref name=Montada>{{cite web|author=Josep Puig Montada|title=Ibn Bajja|publisher=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-bajja|date=September 28, 2007|accessdate=2008-07-11}}</ref>
* 964 — [[Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi]] (Azophi), a [[Islamic astronomy|Persian astronomer]], makes the first recorded observations of the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]<ref name="NSOG">{{cite book |last= Kepple |first= George Robert |coauthors= Glen W. Sanner |title= The Night Sky Observer's Guide, Volume 1 |publisher= Willmann-Bell, Inc. |year= 1998 |isbn= 0-943396-58-1 |pages=18
}}</ref> and the [[Large Magellanic Cloud]]<ref name="obspm">{{cite web | title=Observatoire de Paris (Abd-al-Rahman Al Sufi) | url=http://messier.obspm.fr/xtra/Bios/alsufi.html | accessdate=2007-04-19 }}</ref><ref name="obspm2">{{cite web | title=Observatoire de Paris (LMC) | url=http://messier.obspm.fr/xtra/ngc/lmc.html | accessdate=2007-04-19 }}</ref> in his ''[[Book of Fixed Stars]]'', and which are the first galaxies other than the Milky Way to be observed from Earth,
* 11th century — [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], another Persian astronomer, describes the [[Milky Way]] galaxy as a collection of numerous [[Nebula|nebulous]] stars,<ref>{{MacTutor Biography|id=Al-Biruni|title=Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni}}</ref>
* 11th century — [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen), an [[Islamic astronomy|Arabian astronomer]], refutes Aristotle's theory on the Milky Way by making the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way's [[parallax]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Great Muslim Mathematicians|first=Mohaini|last=Mohamed|year=2000|publisher=Penerbit UTM|isbn=983-52-0157-9|pages=49–50|postscript=}}</ref> and he thus "determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it was very remote from the [[earth]] and did not belong to the atmosphere",<ref>{{cite web|title=Popularisation of Optical Phenomena: Establishing the First Ibn Al-Haytham Workshop on Photography|author=Hamid-Eddine Bouali, Mourad Zghal, Zohra Ben Lakhdar|publisher=The Education and Training in Optics and Photonics Conference|year=2005|url=http://spie.org/etop/ETOP2005_080.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-07-08}}</ref>
* 12th century — [[Ibn Bajjah]] (Avempace) of [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]] proposes the Milky Way to be made up of many stars but that it appears to be a continuous image due to the effect of [[refraction]] in the [[Earth's atmosphere]],<ref name=Montada/>
* 14th century — [[Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya]] of [[Syria]] proposes the Milky Way galaxy to be "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars" and that these stars are larger than [[planet]]s,<ref name=Livingston>{{Cite journal|title=Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutation|first=John W.|last=Livingston|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=91|issue=1|year=1971|pages=96–103 [99]|doi=10.2307/600445|publisher=American Oriental Society|postscript=|jstor=600445}}</ref>
* 1521 — [[Ferdinand Magellan]] observes the [[Magellanic Clouds]] during his circumnavigating expedition,
* 1610 — [[Galileo Galilei]] uses a [[telescope]] to determine that the bright band on the [[sky]], the "[[Milky Way]]", is composed of many faint [[star]]s
* 1750 — [[Thomas Wright (astronomer)|Thomas Wright]] discusses [[galaxy|galaxies]] and the shape of the Milky Way,
* 1755 — Drawing on Wright's work, [[Immanuel Kant]] conjectures that the galaxy is a rotating disk of stars held together by [[gravity]], and that the [[nebula]]e are separate such galaxies; he calls them ''[[Island universe|Island Universes]]''
* 1785 — [[William Herschel]] carried the first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun in it by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of the sky. He produced a diagram of the shape of the galaxy with the solar system close to the center.
* 1845 — [[William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse|Lord Rosse]] discovers a nebula with a distinct spiral shape

==Early 20th Century==
* 1918 — [[Harlow Shapley]] demonstrates that [[globular cluster]]s are arranged in a spheroid or halo whose center is not the [[Earth]], and decides, correctly, that its center is the [[Galactic Center]] of the galaxy,
* 1920 — Harlow Shapley and [[Heber Curtis]] debate whether or not the spiral nebulae lie within the Milky Way,
* 1923 — [[Edwin Hubble]] resolves the [[Shapley–Curtis debate]] by finding [[Cepheid variable|Cepheids]] in the [[Andromeda galaxy]]
* 1930 — [[Robert Trumpler]] uses [[open cluster]] observations to quantify the [[Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)|absorption]] of [[light]] by [[interstellar dust]] in the [[galactic plane]]; this absorption had plagued earlier models of the Milky Way,
* 1932 — [[Karl Guthe Jansky]] discovers [[radio noise]] from the center of the Milky Way,
* 1933 — [[Fritz Zwicky]] applies the [[virial theorem]] to the [[Coma Cluster]] and obtains evidence for unseen [[mass]],
* 1936 — Edwin Hubble introduces the spiral, barred spiral, elliptical, and irregular galaxy classifications,
* 1939 — [[Grote Reber]] discovers the radio source [[Cygnus A]],
* 1943 — [[Carl Keenan Seyfert]] identifies six spiral galaxies with unusually broad [[emission line]]s, named [[Seyfert galaxy|Seyfert galaxies]],
* 1949 — J.G. Bolton, G.J. Stanley, and O.B. Slee identify [[Elliptical Galaxy M87|NGC 4486]] ([[Elliptical Galaxy M87|M87]]) and [[NGC 5128]] as extragalactic radio sources,

==Mid-20th Century==
* 1953 — [[Gerard de Vaucouleurs]] discovers that the galaxies within approximately 200 million [[light year]]s of the [[Virgo cluster]] are confined to a giant [[supercluster]] disk,
* 1954 — [[Walter Baade]] and [[Rudolph Minkowski]] identify the extragalactic optical counterpart of the radio source Cygnus A,
* 1959 — Hundreds of radio sources are detected by the [[Cambridge Interferometer]] which produces the [[Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources|3C catalogue]]. Many of these are later found to be distant quasars and radio galaxies
* 1960 — [[Thomas Matthews (astronomer)|Thomas Matthews]] determines the radio position of the ''[[Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources|3C]]'' source [[3C 48]] to within 5",
* 1960 — [[Allan Sandage]] optically studies [[3C 48]] and observes an unusual blue quasistellar object,
* 1962 — [[Cyril Hazard]], M.B. Mackey, and A.J. Shimmins use [[lunar occultation]]s to determine a precise position for the [[quasar]] [[3C 273]] and deduce that it is a double source,
* 1962 — [[Olin Eggen]], [[Donald Lynden-Bell]], and [[Allan Sandage]] theorize [[galaxy formation]] by a single (relatively) rapid monolithic collapse, with the halo forming first, followed by the disk.
* 1963 — [[Maarten Schmidt]] identifies the redshifted Balmer lines from the quasar [[3C 273]]
* 1973 — [[Jeremiah Ostriker]] and [[Philip James Edwin Peebles|James Peebles]] discover that the amount of visible matter in the disks of typical spiral galaxies is not enough for Newtonian gravitation to keep the disks from flying apart or drastically changing shape,
* 1973 — Donald Gudehus finds that the diameters of the brightest cluster galaxies have increased due to merging,
* 1974 — [[Bernie Fanaroff|B.L. Fanaroff]] and [[Julia Riley|J.M. Riley]] [[Fanaroff-Riley classification|distinguish]] between edge-darkened (FR I) and edge-brightened (FR II) radio sources,
* 1976 — [[Sandra Faber]] and [[Robert Jackson (scientist)|Robert Jackson]] discover the Faber-Jackson relation between the [[luminosity]] of an elliptical galaxy and the [[velocity]] dispersion in its center. In 1991 the relation is revised by Donald Gudehus,
* 1977 — [[R. Brent Tully]] and [[J. Richard Fisher|Richard Fisher]] publish the [[Tully-Fisher relation]] between the luminosity of an isolated spiral galaxy and the velocity of the flat part of its [[rotation curve]],
* 1978 — [[Steve Gregory (astronomer)|Steve Gregory]] and [[Laird A. Thompson|Laird Thompson]] describe the Coma supercluster,
* 1978 — [[Donald Gudehus]] finds evidence that clusters of galaxies are moving at several hundred kilometers per second relative to the cosmic microwave background radiation,
* 1978 — [[Vera Rubin]], [[Kent Ford (astronomer)|Kent Ford]], N. Thonnard, and [[Albert Bosma]] measure the rotation curves of several spiral galaxies and find significant deviations from what is predicted by the Newtonian gravitation of visible stars,
* 1978 — [[Leonard Searle]] and [[Robert Zinn]] theorize that [[galaxy formation]] occurs through the merger of smaller groups.

==Late 20th Century==
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2009}}
* 1981 — [[Robert Kirshner]], [[August Oemler]], [[Paul L. Schechter|Paul Schechter]], and [[Stephen Shectman]] find evidence for a [[Boötes void|giant void]] in [[Boötes]] with a diameter of approximately 100 million light years,
* 1985 — [[Robert Antonucci]] and J. Miller discover that the Seyfert II galaxy [[NGC 1068]] has broad lines which can only be seen in [[polarized light|polarized]] reflected light,
* 1986 — [[Amos Yahil]], [[David Walker (astronomer)|David Walker]], and [[Michael Rowan-Robinson]] find that the direction of the [[IRAS]] galaxy density [[dipole]] agrees with the direction of the [[cosmic microwave background]] temperature dipole,
* 1987 — [[David Burstein]], [[Roger Davies (astrophysicist)|Roger Davies]], [[Alan Dressler]], [[Sandra M. Faber|Sandra Faber]], [[Donald Lynden-Bell]], R.J. Terlevich, and [[Gary A. Wegner|Gary Wegner]] claim that a large group of galaxies within about 200 million light years of the Milky Way are moving together towards the "[[Great Attractor]]" in the direction of [[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]] and [[Centaurus]],
* 1987 — [[R. Brent Tully]] discovers the [[Pisces-Cetus Supercluster Complex]], a structure one billion light years long and 150 million light years wide,
* 1989 — [[Margaret Geller]] and [[John Huchra]] discover the "[[Great Wall (astronomy)|Great Wall]]", a sheet of galaxies more than 500 million light years long and 200 million wide, but only 15 million light years thick,
* 1990 — [[Michael Rowan-Robinson]] and [[Tom Broadhurst]] discover that the IRAS galaxy [[IRAS F10214+4724]] is the brightest known object in the [[Universe]],
* 1991 — [[Donald Gudehus]] discovers a serious systematic bias in certain cluster galaxy data (surface brightness vs. radius parameter, and the <math>D_n</math> method) which affect galaxy distances and evolutionary history; he devises a new distance indicator, the reduced galaxian radius parameter, <math>r_g</math>, which is free of biases,
* 1992 — First detection of large-scale structure in the [[Cosmic microwave background radiation|cosmic microwave background]] indicating the seeds of the first clusters of galaxies in the early Universe
* 1995 — First detection of small-scale structure in the [[cosmic microwave background]]
* 1995 — [[Hubble Deep Field]] survey of galaxies in field 144 arc seconds across.
* 1998 — The [[2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey]] maps the large-scale structure in a section of the Universe close to the Milky Way
* 1998 — [[Hubble Deep Field South]]
* 1998 — Discovery of [[accelerating universe]]
* 2000 — Data from several [[Cosmic microwave background radiation|cosmic microwave background]] experiments give strong evidence that the Universe is "flat" (space is not curved, although space-time is), with important implications for the formation of large-scale structure

==Early 21st Century==
* 2001 — First data release from the on-going [[Sloan Digital Sky Survey]]
* 2004 — The [[European Southern Observatory]] discovers [[Abell 1835 IR1916]], the most distant galaxy yet seen from Earth.
* 2004 — The [[Arcminute Microkelvin Imager]] begins to map the distribution of distant clusters of galaxies
* 2005 — [[Spitzer Space Telescope]] data confirm what had been considered likely since the early 1990s from [[radio telescope]] data, i.e., that the [[Milky Way Galaxy]] is a [[barred spiral galaxy]].<ref>Britt, Robert Roy. [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/050816_milky_way.html "Milky Way’s Central Structure Seen with Fresh Clarity."]</ref><ref>[http://www.space.com/ SPACE.com] 16 August 2005.</ref><ref>Devitt, Terry [http://www.news.wisc.edu/11405.html "Galactic survey reveals a new look for the Milky Way."] 16 August 2005 </ref>
* 2012 — Astronomers report the discovery of the most distant [[dwarf galaxy]] yet found, approximately 10 billion light-years away.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-16610153 | work=BBC News | title=Dark matter galaxy hints seen 10bn light-years away | date=2012-01-18}}</ref>
* 2012 — The [[Huge-LQG]], a [[large quasar group]], one of the largest known structures in the universe, is discovered.<ref>{{cite web | last = Wall | first = Mike | url = http://www.foxnews.com/science/2013/01/11/largest-structure-in-universe-discovered/ | title = Largest structure in universe discovered | date = 2013-01-11 | publisher = [[Fox News]] }}</ref>
* 2013 — The galaxy [[Z8_GND_5296]] is confirmed by [[spectroscopy]] to be one of the most distant galaxies found up to this time. Formed just 700 million years after the [[Big Bang]], expansion of the universe has carried it to its current location, about 30 billion light years away from Earth.
* 2013 — The [[Hercules-Corona Borealis Great Wall]], a massive [[galaxy filament]] and the largest known structure in the universe, was discovered thru [[gamma-ray burst]] mapping.<ref name=2014paper>{{cite web | last = Horvath I., Hakkila J., and Bagoly Z. | first = | url = http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/bib_query?arXiv:1401.0533 | title = Possible structure in the GRB sky distribution at redshift two | date = 2014 | publisher = |accessdate= }}</ref><ref name=original>{{cite journal|last = Horvath I., Hakkila J., and Bagoly Z. |first = |coauthors = |title = The largest structure of the Universe, defined by Gamma-Ray Bursts|journal = |volume = |issue = |pages = |year = 2013|doi = |arxiv=1311.1104|bibcode = 2013arXiv1311.1104H}}</ref><ref name=conundrum>{{cite web | last = | first = Irene Klotz | url = http://news.discovery.com/space/galaxies/universes-largest-structure-is-a-cosmic-conundrum-131119.htm | title = Universe's Largest Structure is a Cosmic Conundrum | date = 2013-11-19 | publisher = discovery |accessdate=2013-11-22}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Large-scale structure of the cosmos]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Galaxy}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Timeline Of Knowledge About Galaxies, Clusters Of Galaxies, And Large-Scale Structure}}
[[Category:Large-scale structure of the cosmos]]
[[Category:Astronomy timelines|Galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure, timeline of knowledge about]]

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Faraday constant