Quadratic residuosity problem - Revision history

en>Yobot: /* Notes */WP:CHECKWIKI error fixes using AWB (10093)

2014-05-05T12:15:51Z

Notes: WP:CHECKWIKI error fixes using AWB (10093)

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:15, 5 May 2014
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	In [[macroeconomics]], '''automatic stabilizers''' describes how modern [[government budget]] policies, particularly [[income tax]]es and [[Welfare (financial aid)\|welfare spending]], act to dampen fluctuations in [[real GDP]].<ref>{{cite book		The author is known as Irwin Wunder but it's not the most masucline name out there. Puerto Rico is exactly where he and his wife reside. For many years I've been working as a payroll clerk. He is truly fond of doing ceramics but he is struggling to find time for it.<br><br>My homepage :: [http://www.pornteub.com/blog/32607 std testing at home]
	~~\| last = Sullivan~~
	~~\| first = Arthur~~
	~~\| authorlink = Arthur O' Sullivan~~
	~~\| author2 = Steven M. Sheffrin~~
	~~\| title = Economics: Principles in action~~
	~~\| publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall~~
	~~\| year = 2003~~
	~~\| location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458~~
	~~\| pages = 399~~
	~~\| url = http://www.pearsonschool.com/index.cfm?locator=PSZ3R9&PMDbSiteId=2781&PMDbSolutionId=6724&PMDbCategoryId=&PMDbProgramId=12881&level=4~~
	~~\| doi =~~
	~~\| id =~~
	~~\| isbn = 0-13-063085-3}}</ref>~~

	The size of the [[government budget deficit]] tends to increase when a country enters a [[recession]], which tends to keep national income higher by maintaining [[aggregate demand]]. There may also be a [[multiplier (economics)\|multiplier effect]]. This effect happens automatically depending on GDP and household income, without any explicit policy action by the government, and acts to reduce the severity of recessions. Similarly, the budget deficit tends to decrease during booms, which pulls back on aggregate demand. Therefore, automatic stabilizers tend to reduce the size of the fluctuations in a country's ~~GDP.~~

	~~==Induced taxes==~~
	~~Tax revenues generally depend on household income and~~ the ~~pace of economic activity~~. ~~Household incomes fall~~ and ~~the economy slows down during a recession, and government [[tax revenue]]s fall as well~~. ~~This change in tax revenue occurs because of the way modern tax systems are generally constructed.~~
	*[[Income tax]]es are generally at least somewhat [[progressive taxation\|progressive]]. This means that as ~~household incomes fall during~~ a ~~recession, households pay lower rates on their incomes as income tax. Therefore, income tax revenue tends to fall faster than the fall in household income~~.
	*[[Corporate tax]] is generally based on [[profit (economics)\|profits]], rather than [[revenue]]. In a recession profits tend to fall much faster than revenue. Therefore, a company pays much less tax while having slightly less economic activity.
	*[[Sales tax]] depends on the dollar volume of ~~sales, which tends to fall during recessions.~~

	~~If national income rises, by contrast, then tax revenues will rise. During an economic boom, tax revenue is higher and in a recession tax revenue is lower, not only in absolute terms~~ but ~~as a proportion of national income.~~

	~~Some other forms of taxation do not exhibit these effects, if they bear no relation to income (e.g. [[poll tax]]es, export [[tariff]]s or [[property tax]]es).~~

	~~===Transfer payments===~~
	Most governments also pay [[unemployment]] and [[Welfare (financial aid)\|welfare benefits]]. Generally speaking, the number of unemployed people and those on low incomes who are entitled to other benefits increases in a recession and decreases in a boom.

	~~This means that ''government expenditure increases automatically in recessions and decreases automatically in a boom'' in absolute terms. Since the trend of output~~ is to ~~increase in booms and decrease in recessions, expenditure is expected to increase as a share of income in recessions and decrease as a share of income in booms.~~

	~~==Automatic stabilizers incorporated into the expenditure multiplier==~~
	~~This section incorporates automatic stabilization into a broadly [[Keynesian]] [[Multiplier (economics)\|multiplier]] model~~.

	<~~math~~>~~Multiplier=\frac{1}{1-[MPC(1-T)-MPI]}~~<~~/math~~>
	*'''MPC''' = [[Marginal propensity to consume]]
	*'''T''' = Induced taxes
	*'''MPI''' = Marginal Propensity to Import

	~~Holding all other things constant, [[ceteris paribus]], the greater the level of taxes, or the greater the MPI then the value of this multiplier will drop. For example, lets assume that~~:

	:~~→ ''MPC'' = 0.8~~

	:~~→ ''T'' = 0~~

	~~:→ ''MPI'' = 0~~.2

	~~Here we have an economy with zero marginal taxes and zero transfer payments~~. If these figures were substituted into the multiplier formula, the resulting figure would be '''2.5'''. This figure would give us the instance where a (for instance) $1 billion change in expenditure would lead to a $2.5 billion change in equilibrium real GDP.

	~~Lets now take an economy where there are positive taxes (an increase from 0 to 0.2), while the MPC and MPI remain the same:~~

	~~:→ ''MPC'' = 0.8~~

	~~:→ ''T'' = 0.2~~

	~~:→ ''MPI'' = 0.2~~

	If these figures were now substituted into the multiplier formula, the resulting figure would be '''1.79'''. This figure would give us the instance where, again, a $1 billion change in expenditure would now lead to only a $1.79 billion change in equilibrium real GDP.

	This example shows us how the multiplier is lessened by the existence of an automatic stabiliser, and thus helping to lessen the fluctuations in real GDP as a result from changes in expenditure. Not only does this example work with changes in '''T''', it would also work by changing the '''MPI''' while holding '''MPC''' and '''T''' constant as well.

	~~There is broad consensus among economists that the automatic stabilizers often exist and function in the short term.~~

	~~Additionally, [[imports]] often tend to decrease in a recession, meaning more of the national income is spent~~ at home ~~rather than abroad. This also helps stabilize the economy.~~

	~~== See also ==~~
	* [[Negative feedback]]

	~~==References==~~
	~~{{Reflist}}~~

	~~[[Category:Economic policy]]~~
	~~[[Category:Economics effects]]~~
	~~[[Category:Macroeconomic policy]~~]

123.21.179.138: /* Applications */

2013-05-29T02:15:05Z

Applications

← Older revision		Revision as of 04:15, 29 May 2013
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~Greetings~~. ~~Let me begin~~ by ~~telling you~~ the ~~writer~~'s ~~title - Phebe~~. In ~~her professional lifestyle she~~ is a ~~payroll clerk~~ but ~~she'~~s ~~always wanted her personal company~~. ~~My family lives~~ in ~~Minnesota~~ and ~~my family enjoys it~~. ~~One~~ of ~~the extremely best issues~~ in ~~the world for me~~ is to ~~do aerobics~~ and ~~I've been doing it for quite~~ a ~~whilst~~.<br><br>~~My site;~~ [~~http~~:~~//nabidoona~~.~~com/xe/freeboard/56288~~ at home ~~std test~~]		In [[macroeconomics]], '''automatic stabilizers''' describes how modern [[government budget]] policies, particularly [[income tax]]es and [[Welfare (financial aid)\|welfare spending]], act to dampen fluctuations in [[real GDP]].<ref>{{cite book
			\| last = Sullivan
			\| first = Arthur
			\| authorlink = Arthur O' Sullivan
			\| author2 = Steven M. Sheffrin
			\| title = Economics: Principles in action
			\| publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall
			\| year = 2003
			\| location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
			\| pages = 399
			\| url = http://www.pearsonschool.com/index.cfm?locator=PSZ3R9&PMDbSiteId=2781&PMDbSolutionId=6724&PMDbCategoryId=&PMDbProgramId=12881&level=4
			\| doi =
			\| id =
			\| isbn = 0-13-063085-3}}</ref>

			The size of the [[government budget deficit]] tends to increase when a country enters a [[recession]], which tends to keep national income higher by maintaining [[aggregate demand]]. There may also be a [[multiplier (economics)\|multiplier effect]]. This effect happens automatically depending on GDP and household income, without any explicit policy action by the government, and acts to reduce the severity of recessions. Similarly, the budget deficit tends to decrease during booms, which pulls back on aggregate demand. Therefore, automatic stabilizers tend to reduce the size of the fluctuations in a country's GDP.

			==Induced taxes==
			Tax revenues generally depend on household income and the pace of economic activity. Household incomes fall and the economy slows down during a recession, and government [[tax revenue]]s fall as well. This change in tax revenue occurs because of the way modern tax systems are generally constructed.
			*[[Income tax]]es are generally at least somewhat [[progressive taxation\|progressive]]. This means that as household incomes fall during a recession, households pay lower rates on their incomes as income tax. Therefore, income tax revenue tends to fall faster than the fall in household income.
			*[[Corporate tax]] is generally based on [[profit (economics)\|profits]], rather than [[revenue]]. In a recession profits tend to fall much faster than revenue. Therefore, a company pays much less tax while having slightly less economic activity.
			*[[Sales tax]] depends on the dollar volume of sales, which tends to fall during recessions.

			If national income rises, by contrast, then tax revenues will rise. During an economic boom, tax revenue is higher and in a recession tax revenue is lower, not only in absolute terms but as a proportion of national income.

			Some other forms of taxation do not exhibit these effects, if they bear no relation to income (e.g. [[poll tax]]es, export [[tariff]]s or [[property tax]]es).

			===Transfer payments===
			Most governments also pay [[unemployment]] and [[Welfare (financial aid)\|welfare benefits]]. Generally speaking, the number of unemployed people and those on low incomes who are entitled to other benefits increases in a recession and decreases in a boom.

			This means that ''government expenditure increases automatically in recessions and decreases automatically in a boom'' in absolute terms. Since the trend of output is to increase in booms and decrease in recessions, expenditure is expected to increase as a share of income in recessions and decrease as a share of income in booms.

			==Automatic stabilizers incorporated into the expenditure multiplier==
			This section incorporates automatic stabilization into a broadly [[Keynesian]] [[Multiplier (economics)\|multiplier]] model.

			<math>Multiplier=\frac{1}{1-[MPC(1-T)-MPI]}</math>
			*'''MPC''' = [[Marginal propensity to consume]]
			*'''T''' = Induced taxes
			*'''MPI''' = Marginal Propensity to Import

			Holding all other things constant, [[ceteris paribus]], the greater the level of taxes, or the greater the MPI then the value of this multiplier will drop. For example, lets assume that:

			:→ ''MPC'' = 0.8

			:→ ''T'' = 0

			:→ ''MPI'' = 0.2

			Here we have an economy with zero marginal taxes and zero transfer payments. If these figures were substituted into the multiplier formula, the resulting figure would be '''2.5'''. This figure would give us the instance where a (for instance) $1 billion change in expenditure would lead to a $2.5 billion change in equilibrium real GDP.

			Lets now take an economy where there are positive taxes (an increase from 0 to 0.2), while the MPC and MPI remain the same:

			:→ ''MPC'' = 0.8

			:→ ''T'' = 0.2

			:→ ''MPI'' = 0.2

			If these figures were now substituted into the multiplier formula, the resulting figure would be '''1.79'''. This figure would give us the instance where, again, a $1 billion change in expenditure would now lead to only a $1.79 billion change in equilibrium real GDP.

			This example shows us how the multiplier is lessened by the existence of an automatic stabiliser, and thus helping to lessen the fluctuations in real GDP as a result from changes in expenditure. Not only does this example work with changes in '''T''', it would also work by changing the '''MPI''' while holding '''MPC''' and '''T''' constant as well.

			There is broad consensus among economists that the automatic stabilizers often exist and function in the short term.

			Additionally, [[imports]] often tend to decrease in a recession, meaning more of the national income is spent at home rather than abroad. This also helps stabilize the economy.

			== See also ==
			* [[Negative feedback]]

			==References==
			{{Reflist}}

			[[Category:Economic policy]]
			[[Category:Economics effects]]
			[[Category:Macroeconomic policy]]

136.187.112.152 at 05:56, 22 November 2011

2011-11-22T05:56:25Z

New page

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