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{{Orphan|date=June 2013}}


{{Infobox protein family
| Symbol = FeThRed_A
| Name = Ferredoxin thioredoxin reductase variable alpha chain
| image = PDB 1dj7 EBI.jpg
| width =
| caption = crystal structure of ferredoxin thioredoxin reductase
| Pfam = PF02941
| Pfam_clan = 
| InterPro = IPR004207
| SMART =
| PROSITE =
| MEROPS =
| SCOP = 1dj7
| TCDB =
| OPM family =
| OPM protein =
| CAZy =
| CDD =
}}
{{Infobox protein family
| Symbol = FeThRed_B
| Name = Ferredoxin thioredoxin reductase catalytic beta chain
| image = PDB 1dj7 EBI.jpg
| width =
| caption = crystal structure of ferredoxin thioredoxin reductase
| Pfam = PF02943
| Pfam_clan = 
| InterPro = IPR004209
| SMART =
| PROSITE =
| MEROPS =
| SCOP = 1dj7
| TCDB =
| OPM family =
| OPM protein =
| CAZy =
| CDD =
}}


'''Ferredoxin-thioredoxin reductase''' {{EC number|1.8.7.2}}, systematic name ''ferredoxin:thioredoxin disulfide oxidoreductase,'' is a [4Fe-4S] [[protein]] that plays an important role in the [[ferredoxin]]/[[thioredoxin]] regulatory chain. It catalyzes the following reaction:
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Arguably a windfall profits tax which is totally unanticipated may also fall into this group<br><br>Little organizations seeking tax-exempt status as non-profit things can now use a shorter, simpler program introduced by the IRS July 1, although some practitioners who raised questions when the IRS released the draft form in springtime remain concerned.<br><br>The side effects of taxation and theories about how best to tax are an important issue in microeconomics Tax is virtually never a simple transfer of wealth. Economic theories of taxation approach the question of how to maximize economic welfare through taxation.<br><br>An ITIN is an identification number issued by the U. government for tax reporting just nAdditional fees apply if you file any returns, including city or local income tax returns, or when you choose other products and services including a Refund Anticipation Check.<br><br>For those who have virtually any issues relating to wherever and also how to make use of [http://www.Yelp.com/biz/caruso-and-company-pa-cpa-deerfield-beach boca raton wealth management services], you possibly can email us from our site. I'm flat-out befuddled by the interest from some in this group in "carbon funds," whether national, global or whatnot. 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::: 2 reduced [[ferredoxin]] + [[thioredoxin]] [[disulfide]] <math>\rightleftharpoons</math> 2 oxidized ferredoxin + thioredoxin [[thiols]] + 2 H<sup>+</sup>
 
Ferredoxin-Thioredoxin reductase (FTR) converts an [[electron]] signal (photoreduced ferredoxin) to a [[thiol]] signal (reduced thioredoxin), regulating [[enzyme]]s by [[Redox|reduction]] of specific [[disulfide]] groups. It [[catalysis|catalyses]] the light-dependent activation of several [[photosynthesis]] [[enzymes]] and constitutes the first historical example of a thiol/disulfide exchange cascade for enzyme regulation.<ref name="pmid16245124">{{cite journal | author = Buchanan B, Schurmann P, Wolosiuk R, Jacquot J | title = The ferredoxin/thioredoxin system: from discovery to molecular structures and beyond | journal = Discoveries in Photosynthesis | volume = 73 | pages = 215–222 | year = 2002 | pmid = 16245124| url = | doi=10.1023/A:1020407432008 | issue=1-3}}</ref> It is a [[heterodimer]] of subunit alpha and subunit beta. Subunit alpha is the variable subunit, and beta is the [[catalytic]] chain. The [[secondary structure|structure]] of the beta subunit has been determined and found to fold around the [[FeS]] cluster.<ref name="pmid10649999">{{cite journal | author = Dai S, Schwendtmayer C, Schurmann P, Ramaswamy S, Eklund H | title = Redox signaling in chloroplasts: cleavage of disulfides by an iron-sulfur cluster | journal = Science | volume = 287 | issue = 5453 | pages = 655–8 |date=January 2000 | pmid = 10649999 | doi = 10.1126/science.287.5453.655| url = }}</ref>
 
==Biological Function==
Major groups of oxygen-producing, [[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] organisms such as [[cyanobacteria]], [[algae]], [[C4 carbon fixation#C4pathway|C4]], [[C3 carbon fixation|C3]], and [[crassulacean acid metabolism]] (CAM) plants use Ferredoxin-thioredoxin reductase for [[carbon fixation]] regulation.<ref name= "Hirasawa">Hirasawa, Masakazu, Peter Schurmann, and Jean-Pierre Jacquot. "Oxidation-Reduction Properties of Chloroplast Thioredoxins, Ferredoxin:Thioredoxin Reductase, and Thioredoxin f-Regulated Enzymes." ''Biochemistry'' 38 (1999): 5200-5205.</ref>  FTR, as part of a greater Ferredoxin-Thioredoxin system, allows plants to change their metabolism based on light intensity. Specifically, the Ferredoxin-Thioredoxin system controls enzymes in the [[Calvin Cycle]] and [[Pentose phosphate pathway]] - allowing plants to balance carbohydrate synthesis and degradation based on the availability of light.<ref name="Buchanan">{{cite journal | author = Buchanan | title = Regulation of CO2 assimilation in oxygenic photosynthesis: The ferredoxin/thioredoxin system: Perspective on its discovery, present status, and future development | journal = Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics | volume = 288 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–9 |date=July 1991 | pmid = 1910303 | doi = 10.1016/0003-9861(91)90157-E| url = }}</ref> In the light, photosynthesis harnesses light energy and [[Reduction|reduces]] [[Ferredoxin]]. Using FTR, reduced Ferredoxin then reduces [[Thioredoxin]]. Thioredoxin, through [[Disulfide bond#Preparation and reactions|thiol/disulfide exchange]], then activates carbohydrate synthesis enzymes such as chloroplast [[fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase]], [[Sedoheptulose-bisphosphatase]], and [[phosphoribulokinase]].<ref name="Jacquot">{{cite journal | author = Jacquot J, Lancelin J, Meyer Y | title = Thioredoxins: structure and function in plant cells | journal = New Phytologist | volume = 136 | issue = 4 | pages = 543–570 |date=August 1997 | jstor = 2559149 | url = }}</ref> As a result, light uses FTR to activate carbohydrate biosynthesis. In the dark, Ferredoxin remains oxidized. This leaves Thioredoxin inactive and allows carbohydrate breakdown to dominate metabolism.<ref name="Buchanan"/>
 
==Structure==
Ferredoxin-Thioredoxin Reductase is an α-β [[protein dimer|heterodimer]] of approximately 30 kDa.<ref name="Staples">{{cite journal | author = Staples C, Ameyibor E, Fu W, Gardet-Salvi L, Stritt-Etter A, Schurmann P, Knaff D, Johnson M | title = The Function and Properties of the Iron-sulfur Center in Spinach Ferredoxin:Thioredoxin Reductase: A New Biological Role for Iron-Sulfur Clusters | journal = Biochemistry | volume = 35 | pages = 11425–11434 |date=September 1996 | doi = 10.1021/bi961007p| url = | pmid=8784198}}</ref> FTR structure across different plant species include a conserved catalytic β subunit and a variable α subunit. The structure of FTR from ''[[Synechocystis]]'' sp. PCC6803 has been studied in detail and resolved at 1.6 Å.<ref name="pmid10649999"/> FTR resembles a thin [[concave]] disc, 10 Å across the center where a [[Iron-sulfur cluster|[4Fe-4S cluster]]] resides.  One side of the cluster center contains redox-active disulfide bonds that reduce Thioredoxin while the opposite docks with reduced Ferredoxin. This two sided disc structure allows FTR to simultaneously interact with Thioredoxin and Ferredoxin.<ref name="pmid10649999"/>
 
[[File:Ferredoxin-Thioredoxin Reductase Fe-S center with surrounding Cysteine residues.jpg|thumbnail|[4Fe-4S] cluster in the Ferredoxin-thioredoxin reductase catalytic β subunit is surrounded by several Cysteine residues.]]
 
The variable α subunit has an open [[Beta-barrel|β barrel]] structure made of five [[antiparallel (biochemistry)#Beta sheet|antiparallel β strands]].  Its interaction with the catalytic subunit occurs mainly with two loops between β strands. The residues in these two loops are mostly conserved and are thought to stabilize the 4Fe-4S cluster in the catalytic subunit. Structurally, the α subunit is very similar to the PsaE protein, a subunit of [[Photosystem I]], though the similarity is not seen in their sequences or functions.<ref name="pmid10649999"/>
 
The catalytic β subunit has a general α-helical structure with an [[Iron-sulfur cluster|[4Fe-4S center]]].  The FeS center and redox-active [[Cysteine]] residues are located within the loops of these helices. Cysteine-55, 74, 76, and 85 are coordinated in cubane-like geometry around the Fe-S center.<ref name="pmid10649999"/>
 
==Enzymatic Mechanism==
FTR is ''unique'' among [[thioredoxin reductase]]s because it uses an Fe-S cluster [[cofactor (biochemistry)|cofactor]] rather than [[flavoprotein]]s to reduce disulfide bonds. FTR catalysis begins with its interaction with reduced Ferredoxin.  This proceeds with the attraction between FTR Lys-47 and Ferredoxin Glu-92.<ref name="Dai">{{cite journal | author = Dai S, Friemann R, Glauser D, Bourqin F, Manieri W, Schurmann P, Eklund H | title = Structural snapshots along the reaction pathway of ferredoxin-thioredoxin reductase | journal = Nature | volume = 448 | pages = 92–96 |date=July 2007 | pmid = 17611542 | url = | doi=10.1038/nature05937 | issue=7149}}</ref> One electron from Ferredoxin and one electron from the Fe-S center is abstracted to break FTR's Cys-87 and Cys-57 disulfide bond, create a nucleophilic Cys-57, and oxidize the Fe-S center from [4Fe-4S]<sup>2+</sup> to [4Fe-4S]<sup>3+</sup>.<ref name="Jameson">{{cite journal | author = Jameson G, Elizabeth W, Manieri W, Schurmann P, Johnson M, Huynh B | title = Spectroscopic Evidence for Site Specific Chemistry at a Unique Iron Site of the [4Fe-4S] Cluster in Ferredoxin:Thioredoxin Reductase | journal = Journal of American Chemical Society | volume = 25 | pages = 1146–1147 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12553798 | doi = 10.1021/ja029338e| url = }}</ref> The structure of this one-electron (from Ferredoxin) intermediate is contested: Staples et al. suggest Cys-87 is coordinated to a Sulfur in the Fe-S center<ref name="Staples"/> while Dai et al. argue Cys-87 is coordinated to an Iron.<ref name="pmid10649999"/>  Next, the nucleophilic Cys-57, encouraged by an adjacent [[Histidine]] residue,<ref name="Glauser">{{cite journal | author = Glauser DA, Bourquin F, Manieri W, Schurmann P | title = Characterization of ferredoxin:thioredoxin reductase modified by site-directed mutagenesis | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 279 | issue = 16 | pages = 16662–16669 |date=April 2004 | pmid = 14769790 | url = | doi=10.1074/jbc.M313851200}}</ref> attacks a disulfide bridge on Thioredoxin, creating a hetero-disulfide Thioredoxin intermediate. Lastly, a newly docked Ferredoxin molecule delivers the final electron to the FeS center, reducing it to its original 2+ state, reforming the Cys-87, Cys-57 disulfide, and fully reducing thioredoxin to two [[thiol]]s.<ref name="Dai"/>
 
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{InterPro content|IPR004209}}
 
{{InterPro content|IPR004207}}
 
[[Category:Protein domains]]

Latest revision as of 23:27, 10 December 2014


President Obama has passed wide ranging tax help for working families and small businesses --- the drivers of economic growth. In the first four years of the Obama government, a normal family making $50,000 a year has received tax cuts totaling $3,600 -- more if they were placing a child through school.

This section adds undue weight to particular thoughts, incidents, or controversies. A hypothetical Laffer curve for any given economy can simply be estimated and such approximations are occasionally contentious.

Because nations cannot and will not agree on who should be allowed to have and emit how much carbon pollution. We do not know with great precision what degree of emissions will lead to any amount of warming.

President Obama and many Democrats contend that U. Our assignment is toformulate and promote conservative public policies based on the principles of free enterprise, limited government, individual freedom, traditional American values, and a powerful national defense. -based transnational firms are being unpatriotic by transferring their corporate addresses overseas as a way to reduce their taxes. Earlier this month, with absolutely no fanfare, the Treasury Department declared what could be a major change in the way we save for retirement.

If cost is the primary concern you aren't going to locate a more economical alternative to the software options. If the accountant is good and you've missed some write offs, the refunds will more than pay for the cost. Your accountant can fluctuate extensively, but I find most charge on the basis of the intricacy of the return - which is why good preparers ask lots of questions.

It also offers easy-to-use on-line tax software if you're comfortable preparing your returns alone. H&R Block puts the cash on a prepaid card or deposits it directly into your bank. While preparing taxes online and e-filing is the preferable procedure for the do it yourself types, other filers are anxious about preparing their own returns or have complex filing scenarios they want help with.

A good Accountant may also apprise you of any tax associated problems that may come about affecting the business itself and with funding the purchase of the business with personal, bank, or seller funds. Find an accountant to understand personally or has a fire for the company that only can be your go-to question individual without billing.

Can anyone please recommend a good tax accountant for me, I'm a freelance web developer and my wife gets her average w2s but I don't have any idea just how to do taxes or join industry groups having moved from the UK.

Discover revised to update per SL 201439 affecting sales by Gas Cities stocks endured significant losses on Thursday as traders dumped a broad swath of assets, directing the blue-chip average to reach the flat-line for 2014.

The tax weight and the quantity of deadweight price is dependent on the elasticity of supply and demand for the good taxed. nThis causes fewer trades to occur, which reduces economic welfare; the individuals or businesses involved are less well off than before the tax. Arguably a windfall profits tax which is totally unanticipated may also fall into this group

Little organizations seeking tax-exempt status as non-profit things can now use a shorter, simpler program introduced by the IRS July 1, although some practitioners who raised questions when the IRS released the draft form in springtime remain concerned.

The side effects of taxation and theories about how best to tax are an important issue in microeconomics Tax is virtually never a simple transfer of wealth. Economic theories of taxation approach the question of how to maximize economic welfare through taxation.

An ITIN is an identification number issued by the U. government for tax reporting just nAdditional fees apply if you file any returns, including city or local income tax returns, or when you choose other products and services including a Refund Anticipation Check.

For those who have virtually any issues relating to wherever and also how to make use of boca raton wealth management services, you possibly can email us from our site. I'm flat-out befuddled by the interest from some in this group in "carbon funds," whether national, global or whatnot. I believe they're a dead end politically at the same time as a dodge scientifically.

Here is how to discover whether you need an accounting firm or an inside accountant, the way to determine what qualifications to seek in your cpa, and how to select the right accountant for the business. Bear in mind that small business can ill afford to make a hiring mistake - notably having an accountant.

The impact on households can be softened through "dividends" (revenue distributions) and/or reducing other taxes that discourage hiring and investing ("tax shifting or swapping"). A revenue-neutral carbon tax, in which all tax revenue would be returned to the general public as a rebate check "dividend", receives 56% support.

Finding a great one is a question of trial / error and requires time investment. Whether you choose an individual accountant or an accounting firm, be sure that there's a Certified Public Accountant (CPA) at the helm.