Electrical resistivity and conductivity

Template:Good article 30 year-old Entertainer or Range Artist Wesley from Drumheller, really loves vehicle, property developers properties for sale in singapore singapore and horse racing. Finds inspiration by traveling to Works of Antoni Gaudí. Template:Infobox scientist

Max Born (11 December 1882 – 5 January 1970) was a German physicist and mathematician who was instrumental in the development of quantum mechanics. He also made contributions to solid-state physics and optics and supervised the work of a number of notable physicists in the 1920s and 30s. Born won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics for his "fundamental research in Quantum Mechanics, especially in the statistical interpretation of the wave function".

Education

Born entered the University of Göttingen in 1904, where he found the three renowned mathematicians, Felix Klein, David Hilbert and Hermann Minkowski. He wrote his Ph.D. thesis on the subject of "Stability of Elastica in a Plane and Space", winning the University's Philosophy Faculty Prize. In 1905, he began researching special relativity with Minkowski, and subsequently wrote his habilitation thesis on the Thomson model of the atom. A chance meeting with Fritz Haber in Berlin in 1918 led to discussion of the manner in which an ionic compound is formed when a metal reacts with a halogen, which is today known as the Born–Haber cycle.

In 1921, Born returned to Göttingen, arranging another chair for his long-time friend and colleague James Franck. Under Born, Göttingen became one of the world's foremost centres for physics. In 1925, Born and Werner Heisenberg formulated the matrix mechanics representation of quantum mechanics. The following year, he formulated the now-standard interpretation of the probability density function for ψ*ψ in the Schrödinger equation, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1954. His influence extended far beyond his own research. Max Delbrück, Siegfried Flügge, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim, Robert Oppenheimer, and Victor Weisskopf all received their Ph.D. degrees under Born at Göttingen, and his assistants included Enrico Fermi, Werner Heisenberg, Gerhard Herzberg, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Wolfgang Pauli, Léon Rosenfeld, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner.

In January 1933, the Nazi Party came to power in Germany, and Born, who was Jewish, was suspended. He emigrated to Britain, where he took a job at St John's College, Cambridge, where he wrote a popular science book, The Restless Universe, and Atomic Physics, that soon became a standard text book. In October 1936, he became the Tait Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, where, working with German-born assistants E. Walter Kellermann and Klaus Fuchs, he continued his research into physics. Max Born became a naturalised British subject on 31 August 1939, one day before World War II broke out in Europe. He remained at Edinburgh until 1952. He retired to Bad Pyrmont, in West Germany. He died in hospital in Göttingen on 5 January 1970.

Early life

Max Born was born on 11 December 1882 in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland), which at the time of Born's birth was part of the Prussian Province of Silesia in the German Empire, to a family of Jewish descent. He was one of two children born to Gustav Born, an anatomist and embryologist, who was a professor of embryology the University of Breslau,Template:Sfn and his wife Margarethe (Gretchen) née Kauffmann, from a Silesian family of industrialists. She died when Max was four years old, on 29 August 1886.Template:Sfn Max had a sister, Käthe, who was born in 1884, and a half-brother, Wolfgang, from his father's second marriage, to Bertha Lipstein. Wolfgang later became Professor of Art History at the City College of New York.Template:Sfn

Initially educated at the König-Wilhelm-Gymnasium in Breslau, Born entered the University of Breslau in 1901. The German university system allowed students to move easily from one university to another, so he spent summer semesters at Heidelberg University in 1902 and the University of Zurich in 1903. Fellow students at Breslau, Otto Toeplitz and Ernst Hellinger, told Born about the University of Göttingen,Template:Sfn and Born went there in April 1904. At Göttingen he found three renowned mathematicians: David Hilbert, Felix Klein and Hermann Minkowski. Very soon after his arrival, Born formed close ties to the latter two men. From the first class he took with Hilbert, Hilbert identified Born as having exceptional abilities and selected him as the lecture scribe, whose function was to write up the class notes for the students' mathematics reading room at the University of Göttingen. Being class scribe put Born into regular, invaluable contact with Hilbert, during which time Hilbert's intellectual largesse benefited Born's fertile mind. Hilbert became Born's mentor after selecting him to be the first to hold the unpaid, semi-official position of assistant. Born's introduction to Minkowski came through Born's stepmother, Bertha, as she knew Minkowski from dancing classes in Königsberg. The introduction netted Born invitations to the Minkowski household for Sunday dinners. In addition, while performing his duties as scribe and assistant, Born often saw Minkowski at Hilbert's house.Template:Sfn

Born's relationship with Klein was more problematic. Born attended a seminar conducted by Klein and professors of applied mathematics, Carl Runge and Ludwig Prandtl, on the subject of elasticity. Although not particularly interested in the subject, Born was obliged to present a paper. Using Hilbert's calculus of variations, he presented one in which, using a curved configuration of a wire with both ends fixed, he demonstrated would be the most stable. Klein was impressed, and invited Born to submit a thesis on the subject of "Stability of Elastica in a Plane and Space" – a subject near and dear to Klein – which Klein had arranged to be the subject for the prestigious annual Philosophy Faculty Prize offered by the University. Entries could also qualify as doctoral dissertations. Born responded by turning down the offer, as applied mathematics was not his preferred area of study. Klein was greatly offended.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Klein had the power to make or break academic careers, so Born felt compelled to atone by submitting an entry for the prize. Because Klein refused to supervise him, Born arranged for Carl Runge to be his supervisor. Woldemar Voigt and Karl Schwarzschild became his other examiners. Starting from his paper, Born developed the equations for the stability conditions. As he became more interested in the topic, he had an apparatus constructed that could test his predictions experimentally. In 13 June 1906, the rector announced that Born had won the prize. In 1907, he passed his oral examination and was awarded his PhD in mathematics.

On graduation, Born was obliged to perform his military service, which he had deferred while a student. He found himself drafted into the German army, and posted to the 2nd Guards Dragoons "Empress Alexandra of Russia", which was stationed in Berlin. His service was brief, as he was discharged early after an asthma attack in January 1907. He then travelled to England, where he was admitted to Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, and studied physics for six months at the Cavendish Laboratory under J.J. Thomson, George Searle and Joseph Larmor. After Born returned to Germany, the Army re-inducted him, and he served with the elite 1st (Silesian) Life Cuirassiers "Great Elector" until he was again medically discharged after just six weeks' service. He then returned to Breslau, where he worked under the supervision of Otto Lummer and Ernst Pringsheim, hoping to do his habilitation in physics. A minor accident involving Born's black body experiment, a ruptured cooling water hose, and a flooded laboratory, led to Lummer telling him that he would never become a physicist.Template:Sfn

In 1905, Albert Einstein published his paper On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies about special relativity. Born was intrigued, and began researching the subject. He was devastated to discover that Minkowski was also researching special relativity along the same lines, but when he wrote to Minkowski about his results, Minkowski asked him to return to Göttingen and do his habilitation there. Born accepted. Toeplitz helped Born brush up on his matrix algebra so he could work with the four-dimensional Minkowski space matrices used in the latter's project to reconcile relativity with electrodynamics. Born and Minkowski got along well, and their work made good progress, but Minkowski died suddenly of appendicitis on 12 January 1909. The mathematics students had Born speak on their behalf at the funeral.Template:Sfn

Born attempted to present their results at a meeting of the Göttingen Mathematics Society a few weeks later. He did not get far before he was publicly challenged by Klein and Max Abraham, who rejected relativity, and forced to terminate the lecture. However, Hilbert and Runge were interested in Born's work, and after some discussion with Born they became convinced of the veracity of his results, and persuaded him to give the lecture again. This time he was not interrupted, and Voigt offered to sponsor Born's habilitation thesis.Template:Sfn Born subsequently published his talk as an article on "The Theory of Rigid Bodies in the Kinematics of the Relativity Principle" Template:Lang-de, which introduced the concept of Born rigidity. On 23 October Born presented his habilitation lecture on the Thomson model of the atom.Template:Sfn

Career

Berlin and Frankfurt

Born settled in as a young academic at Göttingen as a privatdozent. In Göttingen, Born stayed at a boarding house run by Sister Annie at Dahlmannstraße 17, known as El BoKaReBo. The name was derived from the first letters of the last names of its boarders: "El" for Ella Philipson (a medical student), "Bo" for Born and Hans Bolza (a physics student), "Ka" for Theodore von Kármán (a Privatdozent), and "Re" for Albrecht Renner (another medical student). A frequent visitor to the boarding house was Paul Peter Ewald, a doctoral student of Arnold Sommerfeld on loan to Hilbert at Göttingen as a special assistant for physics. Richard Courant, a mathematician and Privatdozent, called these people the "in group."Template:Sfn

In 1912, Born met Hedwig (Hedi) Ehrenberg, the daughter of a University of Leipzig law professor, and a friend of Carl Runge's daughter Iris. She was of Jewish background on her father's side, although he had become a practising Lutheran when he got married, as did Max's sister Käthe. Despite never practising his religion, he refused to convert, and his wedding on 2 August 1913 was a garden ceremony. However, he was baptised as a Lutheran in March 1914 by the same pastor who had performed his wedding ceremony. Born regarded "religious professions and churches as a matter of no importance".Template:Sfn His decision to be baptised was made partly in deference to his wife, and partly due to his desire to assimilate into German society.Template:Sfn The marriage produced three children: two daughters, Irene, born in 1914, and Margarethe (Gritli), born in 1915, and a son, Gustav, born in 1921. Irene is the mother of British-born Australian singer and actress Olivia Newton-John.Template:Sfn Through marriage, Born is related to jurists Victor Ehrenberg, his father-in-law, and Rudolf von Jhering, his wife's maternal grandfather, as well as Hans Ehrenberg, and is a great uncle of British comedian Ben Elton.Template:Sfn

By the end of 1913, Born had published 27 papers, including important work on relativity and the dynamics of crystal lattices,Template:Sfn which became a book.Template:Sfn In 1914 received a letter from Max Planck explaining that a new professor extraordinarius chair of theoretical physics had been created at the University of Berlin. The chair had been offered to Max von Laue, but he had turned it down. Born accepted.Template:Sfn The First World War was now raging. Soon after arriving in Berlin in 1915 he enlisted in an Army signals unit. In October he joined the Artillerie-Prüfungs-Kommission, the Army's Berlin-based artillery research and development organisation, under Rudolf Ladenburg, who had established a special unit dedicated to the new technology of sound ranging. In Berlin, Born formed a lifelong friendship with Einstein, who became a frequent visitor to Born's home.Template:Sfn Within days of the armistice in November 1918, Planck had the Army release Born. A chance meeting with Fritz Haber that month led to discussion of the manner in which an ionic compound is formed when a metal reacts with a halogen, which is today known as the Born–Haber cycle.Template:Sfn

Even before Born had taken up the chair in Berlin, von Laue had changed his mind, and decided that he wanted it after all.Template:Sfn He arranged with Born and the faculties concerned for them to exchange jobs. In April 1919 Born became professor ordinarius and Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics on the science faculty at the University of Frankfurt am Main.Template:Sfn While there, he was approached by the University of Göttingen, which was looking for a replacement for Peter Debye as Director of the Physical Institute.Template:Sfn "Theoretical physics," Einstein advised him, "will flourish wherever you happen to be; there is no other Born to be found in Germany today."Template:Sfn In negotiating for the position with the education ministry, Born arranged for another chair, of experimental physics, at Göttingen for his long-time friend and colleague James Franck.Template:Sfn

Göttingen

Solvay Conference, 1927. Born is second from the right in the second row, between Louis de Broglie and Niels Bohr.

For the 12 years Born and Franck were at Göttingen from 1921 to 1933, Born had a collaborator with shared views on basic scientific concepts — a distinct advantage for teaching and his research on the developing quantum theory. The approach of close collaboration between theoretical physicists and experimental physicists was also shared by Born at Göttingen and Arnold Sommerfeld at the University of Munich, who was ordinarius professor of theoretical physics and Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics — also a prime mover in the development of quantum theory. Born and Sommerfeld not only shared their approach in using experimental physics to test and advance their theories, but Sommerfeld, in 1922 when he was in the United States lecturing at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, sent his student Werner Heisenberg to be Born's assistant. Heisenberg again returned to Göttingen in 1923, where he completed his habilitation under Born in 1924, and became a privatdozent at Göttingen.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

In 1925, Born and Heisenberg formulated the matrix mechanics representation of quantum mechanics. On 9 July, Heisenberg gave Born a paper entitled Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen ("Quantum-Theoretical Re-interpretation of Kinematic and Mechanical Relations") to review, and submit for publication. In the paper, Heisenberg formulated quantum theory, avoiding the concrete, but unobservable, representations of electron orbits by using parameters such as transition probabilities for quantum jumps, which necessitated using two indexes corresponding to the initial and final states.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn When Born read the paper, he recognized the formulation as one which could be transcribed and extended to the systematic language of matrices,Template:Sfn which he had learned from his study under Jakob Rosanes at Breslau University.

Up until this time, matrices were seldom used by physicists; they were considered to belong to the realm of pure mathematics. Gustav Mie had used them in a paper on electrodynamics in 1912 and Born had used them in his work on the lattices theory of crystals in 1921. While matrices were used in these cases, the algebra of matrices with their multiplication did not enter the picture as they did in the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics.Template:Sfn With the help of his assistant and former student Pascual Jordan, Born began immediately to make a transcription and extension, and they submitted their results for publication; the paper was received for publication just 60 days after Heisenberg's paper.Template:Sfn A follow-on paper was submitted for publication before the end of the year by all three authors.Template:Sfn The result was a surprising formulation:

$pq-qp={h \over 2\pi i}I$

where p and q were matrices for location and momentum p, and I is the identity matrix. The result arises because matrix multiplication is not commutative. This formulation was entirely attributable to Born, who also established that all the elements not on the diagonal of the matrix were zero. Born considered that his paper with Jordan contained "the most important principles of quantum mechanics including its extension to electrodynamics." The paper put Heisenberg's speculations on a solid mathematical basis. Template:Sfn

Even Born was surprised to discover that Paul Dirac had been thinking along the same lines as Heisenberg. Soon Wolfgang Pauli used the matrix method to calculate the energy values of the hydrogen atom, and found that they agreed with the Bohr model. Another important contribution was made by Erwin Schrödinger, who looked at the problem using wave mechanics. This had a great deal of appeal to many at the time, as it offered the possibility of returning to deterministic classical physics. Born would have none of this, as it ran counter to facts determined by experiment. He formulated the now-standard interpretation of the probability density function for ψ*ψ in the Schrödinger equation, which he published in July 1926.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

In a letter to Born on 4 December 1926, Einstein made his famous remark regarding quantum mechanics: 31 year-old Systems Analyst Bud from Deep River, spends time with pursuits for instance r/c cars, property developers new condo in singapore singapore and books. Last month just traveled to Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape. This quotation is often paraphrased as 'God does not play dice'.Template:Sfn

In 1928, Einstein nominated Heisenberg, Born, and Jordan for the Nobel Prize in Physics,Template:Sfn Template:Sfn but Heisenberg alone won the 1932 Prize "for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen", while Schrödinger and Dirac shared the 1933 Prize "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory". On 25 November 1933, Born received a letter from Heisenberg in which he said he had been delayed in writing due to a "bad conscience" that he alone had received the Prize "for work done in Göttingen in collaboration — you, Jordan and I."Template:Sfn Heisenberg went on to say that Born and Jordan's contribution to quantum mechanics cannot be changed by "a wrong decision from the outside."Template:Sfn In 1954, Heisenberg wrote an article honouring Planck for his insight in 1900, in which he credited Born and Jordan for the final mathematical formulation of matrix mechanics and Heisenberg went on to stress how great their contributions were to quantum mechanics, which were not "adequately acknowledged in the public eye."Template:Sfn

Those who received their Ph.D. degrees under Born at Göttingen included Max Delbrück, Siegfried Flügge, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim, Robert Oppenheimer, and Victor Weisskopf.Template:Sfn Born's assistants at the University of Göttingen's Institute for Theoretical Physics included Enrico Fermi, Werner Heisenberg, Gerhard Herzberg, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Wolfgang Pauli, Léon Rosenfeld, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner.Template:Sfn Walter Heitler became an assistant to Born in 1928, and completed his habilitation under him in 1929. Born not only recognised talent to work with him, but he "let his superstars stretch past him; to those less gifted, he patiently handed out respectable but doable assignments."Template:Sfn Delbrück, and Goeppert-Mayer went on to win Nobel Prizes.

Later life

Born's gravestone in Göttingen is inscribed with the uncertainty principle, which he put on rigid mathematical footing.

In January 1933, the Nazi Party came to power in Germany. In May, Born became one of six Jewish professors at Göttingen who were suspended with pay; Franck had already resigned. In twelve years they had built Göttingen into one of the world's foremost centres for physics.Template:Sfn Born began looking for a new job, writing to Maria Göppert-Mayer at Johns Hopkins University and Rudi Ladenburg at Princeton University. Offers soon started to pour in, and he accepted one from St John's College, Cambridge.Template:Sfn At Cambridge, he wrote a popular science book, The Restless Universe, and a textbook, Atomic Physics, that soon became a standard text, going through seven editions. His family soon settled into life in England, with his daughters Irene and Gritli becoming engaged to Welshman Brinley (Bryn) Newton-John and Englishman Maurice Price respectively.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Born's position at Cambridge was only a temporary one, and his tenure at Göttingen was terminated in May 1935. He therefore accepted an offer from C. V. Raman to come to Bangalore in 1935.Template:Sfn Born considered taking a permanent position there, but the Indian Institute of Science did not create an additional chair for him.Template:Sfn In November 1935, the Born family had their German citizenship revoked, rendering them stateless. A few weeks later Göttingen cancelled Born's doctorate.Template:Sfn Born considered an offer from Pyotr Kapitsa in Moscow, and started taking Russian lessons from Rudolf Peierls's Russian-born wife Genia. But then Charles Galton Darwin asked Born if he would consider becoming his successor as Tait Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, an offer that Born promptly accepted,Template:Sfn assuming the chair in October 1936.Template:Sfn

In Edinburgh, Born promoted the teaching of mathematical physics. He had two German assistants, E. Walter Kellermann and Klaus Fuchs, and together they continued to investigate the mysterious behaviour of electrons.Template:Sfn Born became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1937, and of the Royal Society of London in March 1939. During 1939, he got as many of his remaining friends and relatives still in Germany as he could out of the country, including his sister Käthe, in-laws Kurt and Marga, and the daughters of his friend Heinrich Rausch von Traubenberg. Hedi ran a Domestic Bureau, placing young Jewish women in jobs. Born received his Certificate of Naturalisation as a British subject on 31 August 1939, one day before the Second World War broke out in Europe.Template:Sfn

Born remained at Edinburgh until he reached the retirement age of 70 in 1952. He retired to Bad Pyrmont, in West Germany, in 1954.Template:Sfn In October, he received word that he was being awarded the Nobel Prize. His fellow physicists had never stopped nominating him. Franck and Fermi had nominated him in 1947 and 1948 for his work on crystal lattices, and over the years, he had also been nominated for his work on solid state, quantum mechanics and other topics.Template:Sfn In 1954, he received the prize for "fundamental research in Quantum Mechanics, especially in the statistical interpretation of the wave function" — something that he had worked on alone.Template:Sfn In his Nobel lecture he reflected on the philosophical implications of his work:31 year-old Systems Analyst Bud from Deep River, spends time with pursuits for instance r/c cars, property developers new condo in singapore singapore and books. Last month just traveled to Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape.

In retirement, he continued scientific work, and produced new editions of his books. He died in hospital in Göttingen on 5 January 1970. He was survived by wife Hedi, who died in 1972, and children Irene (mother of the singer Olivia Newton-John), Gritli and Gustav.Template:Sfn He is buried in the Stadtfriedhof there, in the same cemetery as Walther Nernst, Wilhelm Weber, Max von Laue, Max Planck, and David Hilbert.

Bibliography

During his life, Born wrote several semi-popular and technical books. His volumes on topics like atomic physics and optics were very well received and are considered classics in their fields which are still in print. The following is a listing of his major works:

• Max Born The statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics. Nobel Lecture – 11 December 1954.
• Über das Thomson'sche Atommodell Habilitations-Vortrag (FAM, 1909) - The Habilitation was done at the University of Göttingen, on 23 October 1909.
• Dynamik der Kristallgitter (Teubner, 1915) – After its publication, the physicist Arnold Sommerfeld asked Born to write an article based on it for the 5th volume of the Mathematical Encyclopedia. The First World War delayed the start of work on this article, but it was taken up in 1919 and finished in 1922. It was published as a revised edition under the title Atomic Theory of Solid States.
  • Dynamical Theory of Crystal Lattices, with Kun Huang. (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1954)
• Die Relativitätstheorie Einsteins und ihre physikalischen Grundlagen (Springer, 1920) – Based on Born's lectures at the University of Frankfurt am Main.
  • Available in English under the title Einstein's Theory of Relativity.
• Vorlesungen über Atommechanik (Springer, 1925)
  • Mechanics of the Atom (George Bell & Sons, 1927) – Translated by J. W. Fisher and revised by D. R. Hartree.
• Problems of Atomic Dynamics (MIT Press, 1926) – A first account of matrix mechanics being developed in Germany, based on two series of lectures given at MIT, over three months, in late 1925 and early 1926.
• Elementare Quantenmechanik (Zweiter Band der Vorlesungen über Atommechanik), with Pascual Jordan. (Springer, 1930) – This was the first volume of what was intended as a two-volume work. This volume was limited to the work Born did with Jordan on matrix mechanics. The second volume was to deal with Erwin Schrödinger's wave mechanics. However, the second volume was not even started by Born, as he believed his friend and colleague Hermann Weyl had written it before he could do so.
• Optik: Ein Lehrbuch der elektromagnetische Lichttheorie (Springer, 1933) – The book was released just as the Borns were emigrating to England.
  • Principles of Optics: Electromagnetic Theory of Propagation, Interference and Diffraction of Light, with Emil Wolf. (Pergamon, 1959) – This book is not an English translation of Optik, but rather a substantially new book. Shortly after World War II, a number of scientists suggested that Born update and translate his work into English. Since there had been many advances in optics in the intervening years, updating was warranted. In 1951, Emil Wolf began as Born's private assistant on the book; it was eventually published in 1959 by Robert Maxwell's Pergamon Press. – the delay being due to the lengthy time needed "to resolve all the financial and publishing tricks created by Maxwell."
• Moderne Physik (1933) – Based on seven lectures given at the Technischen Hochschule Berlin.
  • Atomic Physics (Blackie, London, 1935) – Authorized translation of Moderne Physik by John Dougall, with updates.
• The Restless Universe (Blackie and Son Limited, 1935) - A popularised rendition of the workshop of nature. Born's nephew, Otto Königsberger, whose successful career as an architect in Berlin was brought to an end when the Nazis took over, was temporarily brought to England to illustrate the book.
• Experiment and Theory in Physics (Cambridge University Press, 1943) – The address given King's College, Newcastle upon Tyne, at the request of the Durham Philosophical Society and the Pure Science Society. An expanded version of the lecture appeared in a 1956 Dover Publications edition.
• Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance (Oxford University Press, 1949) – Based on Born's 1948 Waynflete lectures, given at the College of St. Mary Magdalen, Oxford University. A later edition (Dover, 1964) included two appendices: "Symbol and Reality" and Born's lecture given at the Nobel laureates 1964 meeting in Landau, Germany.
• A General Kinetic Theory of Liquids with H. S. Green (Cambridge University Press, 1949) – The six papers in this book were reproduced with permission from the Proceedings of the Royal Society.
• Physics in My Generation: A Selection of Papers (Pergamon, 1956)
• Physik im Wandel meiner Zeit (Vieweg, 1957)
• Physik und Politik (VandenHoeck und Ruprecht, 1960)
• Zur Begründung der Matrizenmechanik, with Werner Heisenberg and Pascual Jordan (Battenberg, 1962) – Published in honor of Max Born's 80th birthday. This edition reprinted the authors' articles on matrix mechanics published in Zeitscrift für Physik, Volumes 26 and 33–35, 1924–1926.
• My Life and My Views: A Nobel Prize Winner in Physics Writes Provocatively on a Wide Range of Subjects (Scribner, 1968) – Part II (pp. 63–206) is a translation of Verantwortung des Naturwissenschaftlers.
• Briefwechsel 1916–1955, kommentiert von Max Born with Hedwig Born and Albert Einstein (Nymphenburger, 1969)
  • The Born–Einstein Letters: Correspondence between Albert Einstein and Max and Hedwig Born from 1916–1955, with commentaries by Max Born (Macmillan, 1971).
• Mein Leben: Die Erinnerungen des Nobelpreisträgers (Munich: Nymphenburger, 1975). Born's published memoirs.
  • My Life: Recollections of a Nobel Laureate (Scribner, 1978). Translation of Mein Leben.

For a full list of his published papers, see HistCite. For his published works, see Published Works – Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften Akademiebibliothek.

Awards and honors

• 1934 – Stokes Medal of Cambridge
• 1939 – Fellow of the Royal Society
• 1945 – MacDougall–Brisbane Medal of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
• 1945 – Gunning–Victoria Jubilee Prize of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
• 1948 – Max Planck Medaille der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft
• 1950 – Hughes Medal of the Royal Society of London
• 1953 – Honorary citizen of the town of Göttingen
• 1954 – Nobel Prize in Physics The award was for Born's fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially for his statistical interpretation of the wavefunction.
  • 1954 – Nobel Prize Banquet Speech
  • 1954 – Born Nobel Prize Lecture
• 1956 – Hugo Grotius Medal for International Law, Munich
• 1959 – Grand Cross of Merit with Star of the Order of Merit of the German Federal Republic
• 1972 – Max Born Prize was created by the German Physical Society and the British Institute of Physics. It is awarded annually.
• 1982 – Ceremony at the University of Göttingen in the 100th Birth Year of Max Born and James Franck, Institute Directors 1921–1933.
• 1991 – Max-Born Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie im Forschungsverbund Berlin e.V. - Institute named in his honor.

See also

• List of things named after Max Born

References

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

Further reading

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  There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
• One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
  
  In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
  
  Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
  
  Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
  
  A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
  
  The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
  
  There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 Also published in Germany: Max Born – Baumeister der Quantenwelt. Eine Biographie Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, 2005, ISBN 3-8274-1640-X.
• Template:Cite doi
• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534

External links

Most brokers paid and post their listings at these online property categorised portals but fail to realise that there is simply extra to it. They fail to leverage on one of the vital well-liked on-line advertising and marketing tool of their marketing campaign and that is through the social media.

In case you are among the many few who've passed the grueling Actual Estate Salesperson (RES) course, congratulations. So what next? Which agency should you be a part of? Earlier than taking the plunge, you will need to choose the proper mentor who can educate you the ropes in actual estate. An excellent mentor will allow you to navigate the complex world of real property by instructing you the way to get listings, advertising and marketing methods, real estate contracts and methods to closing your deal. He will even caution you on errors to keep away from that would land you in trouble. This has been reflected within the Industrial Production reading index for prescribed drugs. In June, the reading fell to one hundred thirty from 287. Effectively if you do not, you then're simply leaving your actual property enterprise to chance. Commons for rent

Thanks to hirepropertyagent.com.sg, i've discovered myself a good agent. He did a great job promoting my property and it was bought at an excellent value." JLL appointed unique agent for the sale of 2, 4 and 6 Dunlop Street by Expression of Curiosity. Uncommon Industrial Growth inside Pandan Meals Zone space up for sale conserving you updated with the property market 3. Work @ Residence IT Solutions As property costs cool in Hong Kong and Singapore, which have lengthy been magnets for Chinese language funding, extra money is flowing to actual property markets comparable to New York, London and Sydney. Chinese language have overtaken Russians house for sale in singapore the primary time as the biggest buyers of flats in Manhattan, in response to actual estate brokers. Condominium For Lease – Tribeca by the Waterfront (D09)

Property developer and residential landlord for flats and homes for lease and sale. Most property firms share the same database of property listings in Singapore. Due to this fact it is best to solely use only ONE agent at a time. In case you approach many agents at the similar time, very likely that they'll present you the same property. A lot confusion and embarrassment will arise should you engage many brokers. One of the best, and most of the time only, strategy to discover a good property agent in Singapore is phrase-of-mouth. Ask your friends and colleagues for reference. It is very simple to provide you with a couple of candidates since a lot of the expatriates dwelling in Singapore for a long time can have several good agent contacts to guide you. Toa Payoh, Singapore Singapore 319378 Estate

This is precisely what happened to me and my husband at the moment, to not point out a very unscrupulous developer operating in a really unprofessional manner. I need to share this story with everyone here, and please pass the message round particularly among expats communities, beware while you want to purchase property developed by VicLand Pte Ltd and if developer's agent is ECG property. There was only one unit left on the market by developer, 03-09, a 3 bed room flat. On the time my husband was out of town, and initially I liked what I saw so I instructed the developer's agent and my agent we should come back with my husband in two weeks to view it once more and make a decision after ward. Complaint / Suggestions about lousy property agent Darren Ng from Dennis Wee

This bought me thinking and I started to surprise – how much does a property agent really earn? We often hear or read about sure brokers making million dollar commissions, however is that the exception or the norm? That piqued my curiosity. Like any job, those who put in time and effort will do well and rise to the top. The ethics of exhausting work apply to the true property market as nicely. For individuals who are pondering of making a career change to develop into a property agent, you should be ready to invest the trouble to do properly. Otherwise you may just add to the statistic of brokers who eventually drop out of the realtor game. Properties that do not fall within the definition of residential properties stated above are non-residential properties Web site - www.riaschool.com.sg

Ought to you are on the lookout for new properties for investment or for own stay, we offer property recommendation and search services tailored to your needs. We have represented many together with worldwide and local buyers in efficiently finishing their property purchases. We work with main builders to bring you the latest and one of the best prime properties in Singapore. We are a one-cease service that may full your property cycle from purchase to sale. Property agents for Singapore Land Authority protecting among the government colonial properties for rent. Property leases for expatriates and foreigners. Also helps expats to purchase and promote their properties as well as property investment opportunities in Singapore and China. The Restaurant Affiliation of Singapore Property growth may be attributed as the enhancement of a given space by an individual or a marketing consultant or by a corporation as a whole. Any particular person or organization involved in the above activity will possible be known as a Property Developer. Singapore is admittedly well-known in Asia for its booming property.

As a Singapore citizen and in case you are eligible for the backed loans you may benefit from the backed mortgage rates of the HDB. The HDB can grant a sponsored mortgage to first time house patrons and also to second time house consumers who upgrade to another HDB flats. Beginning of January 2008 ,the Singapore Inter financial institution offered rate (Sibor) has fallen again and is at its lowest since three years. Analysts consider it's going to sink additional throughout 2008. The Sibor is the speed at which bank lend to one another and influences what you pay for a mortgage. Statistics exhibits nonetheless, that local and foreign banks in Singapore don't go on the savings without delay but fairly in a time-frame from about two months. Read Extra Do rising Singapore bankruptcies signal hassle ahead?

One in every of Asia's premier property companies, Keppel Land is recognised for its sterling portfolio of award-profitable residential developments and investment-grade commercial properties in addition to excessive requirements of corporate governance and transparency. Keppel Land is likely one of the largest listed property companies by whole belongings on the Singapore Change. The Group's complete assets amounted to about $13.eight billion as at 31 March 2014. It is usually a element of several stock indices together with the FTSE ST Actual Estate Index, FTSE ST China High Index, FTSE All-World Index, FTSE Asia Pacific ex-Japan Index, FTSE EPRA/NAREIT World Real Property Index and EPRA/NAREIT Index. WOODSVALE PERSONAL CONDOMINIUM CONDO WOODSVALE SHUT, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT thirteen) Industrial

The rise within the nominal value index pales as compared with the 38.2% value hike (34% in actual terms) throughout the 12 months to Q2 2010, a period which noticed the fastest value-rises of the recent increase. Measures were introduced in October 2012 to limit mortgage tenure to 35 years, and to lower to 60% the LTV ratio for loans longer than 30 years, or mortgage durations extending past age sixty five. Client Worth Index for Households in Completely different Revenue Teams Domestic Provide Price Index Home Wholesale Commerce Index Expenditure on Gross Domestic Product at 2005 Market Costs Expenditure on Gross Domestic Product at Current Market Prices Food & Beverage Services Index Authorities Improvement Expenditure Gross Home Product at 2005 Market Costs Gross Home Product at Current Market Prices

Thinking of buying property in Singapore and wish to know extra about particular property launches in Singapore, or to attend their VIP Previews ? If you've ever had the experience of paying for an uncompleted property elsewhere only to see the developer vanish halfway by construction of the venture, you'd be glad to know this isn't one thing that's more likely to occur should you're shopping for property in Singapore. That's as a result of new Singapore property gross sales are very high regulated. This page covers some temporary data on the procedures to buy or purchase property in Singapore. Tips for foreigners or buyers buying condominium, home or other properties in Singapore. the title of the big property developers in singapore; Landed Property Builders step by step raising property prices HDB HUB

Only Singapore citizens and accepted persons should buy Landed 'residential property'as outlined in the Residential Properties Act. Foreigners are eligible to purchaseunits in condominiums or flats which aren't landed dwelling homes. Foreignerswho wish to buy landed property in Singapore should first search the approval ofthe Controller of Residential Property. Your Lawyer's Function in a Property Purchase Pending completion of your buy, your lawyer will lodge a caveat towards the title to the property - this serves to notify the general public (and any third social gathering fascinated in the property) that you've a sound curiosity or declare to the title of the property arising from the contract for the sale and buy. Property was all the time on his thoughts Property

Non-public residential properties investment shall be thought of for software for Everlasting Resident software. A foreigner will be considered for PR status if he invests at the least S$2 million in business set-ups, other funding autos such as venture capital funds, foundations or trusts, and/or private residential properties. Up to 50% of the funding may be in personal residential properties, topic to foreign ownership restrictions underneath the Residential Property Act (RPA). That is to attract and anchor foreign expertise in Singapore.

NASSIM, THE PERSONAL CONDOMINIUM CONDOMINIUM NASSIM HILL, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 10) NATHAN RESIDENCES NON-PUBLIC CONDOMINIUM HOUSE NATHAN STREET, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 10) NATHAN SUITES PERSONAL CONDOMINIUM RESIDENCE NATHAN STREET, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 10) NAUTICAL, THE PRIVATE CONDOMINIUM CONDO JALAN SENDUDOK, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 27) NINE DEGRESS (LAUNCHING QUICKLY!) PRIVATE CONDOMINIUM APARTMENT TANJONG KATONG ROAD, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 15) NOUVEL 18 NON-PUBLIC CONDOMINIUM RESIDENCE ANDERSON STREET, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 09) ONE DUSUN RESIDENCES NON-PUBLIC CONDOMINIUM CONDOMINIUM JALAN DUSUN, BALESTIER ROAD, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 12) ONE DUSUN RESIDENCES INDUSTRIAL RETAIL STORE HOUSE JALAN DUSUN, BALESTIER ROAD, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 12) Wing Tai Holdings Ltd Singapore 42 year old Obstetrician and Gynaecologist Merle from Komoka, has interests including entertaining, property developers house in singapore singapore and train collecting. Just had a family trip to China Danxia.

• American Institute of Physics History Search: Max Born
• Encyclopaedia Britannica, Max Born – full article
• Annotated bibliography for Max Born from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
• Freeview video of Gustav Born (son of Max) with conversation and film on Gustav's memories of his father by the Vega Science Trust
• Max Born information from Nobel Winners site
• Nobel Laureate biography
• Papers of Professor Max Born (1882–1970) Held at the Edinburgh University Library, Special Collections Division
• Recollections of Max Born, by Emil Wolf, in Astrophysics and Space Science, Volume 227, Numbers 1–2. (Biographical tribute)
• Kuhn, Thomas S., John L. Heilbron, Paul Forman, and Lini Allen Sources for History of Quantum Physics (American Philosophical Society, 1967)
• Oral History interview transcript with Max Born June 1960, 17 & 18 October 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives

In the event you've just lately been requested by your employer to be posted to Singapore, then this website is for you. Whether or not you're single or married with kids, whether or not you are looking for a condominium, a bungalow, a semi-detached or a public condo, residing and renting a house in Singapore at this time is straightforward when you recognize the ins and outs, the dos and don'ts.

He is a rip-off!! Severely trust me he's on of the scammer agent. He made me believe that I've a spot to remain then when I was about to move the place isn't out there. Then he just took my deposit and agent's charge. By the best way he's also the landlord of the place i am presupposed to lease. He took my money and ran away. However I went to the HDB and complain him, additionally I complain straight to the police. Then the police called him and he got scared. Finally each penny that I gave him, he give it again since HDB and police office is supporting me. Don't be lazy to complain. Go straight to the police and complain these individuals.

i imagine there are good ethical brokers in Singapore. But i have encounter unhealthy experiencing the Christina Fong from realty master. She is admittedly an unprofessional and never moral one. Only considering of undercutiing and squeezing money from ptther people without defending interest of her personal shopper. Proceed to the section Training and look at a map of all worldwide colleges in Singapore or visit the section residential areas for detailed data on the place to stay and why. Information District and Location Have completed no less than 30 property transactions up to now three years. At least 10 of these transactions will have to be for private properties, and at the very least one other 10 needs to be for HDB flats (also known as public housing); Singapore-Indonesia Commercial Affiliation

Agents need to be very resourceful and so they have to work doubly onerous to succeed in out to extra consumers as a result of when the market swings, it turns into very aggressive," said PropNex Chief Executive Mohamed Ismail. "Beforehand, an agent might focus on one space, comparable to HDB, however at this time you may't." An motion for misrepresentation arises beneath the law of tort. A Misrepresentation happens when the Representor (Property Agent) makes a false assertion of existing truth with data of its falsity and with the intention that the Representee (Buyer or Seller) ought to act on it with the consequence that the Representee does act on it to his detriment. Metropolis & South West (D01-08) Tiong Bahru MRT Quiet C/Room F/Furnished w AC No Agent Price

On February 19 we had an appointment with the proprietor and his agent (A and H!) at the condominium to hand over the keys. They went by means of all the things with a wonderful tooth comb. An important lesson we learned over all this is that you simply MUST ENGAGE YOUR PERSONAL AGENT and never rely on the homeowners agent as his priority is to the proprietor not you. Nevertheless, last night time my own agent called me and informed me suddenly that ECG instructed them a buyer goes handy them a check within the morning, so we higher act fast or we may lose the property. Stamp responsibility is to be paid inside 14 days from the date of acceptance of the OTP or Sale and buy a house in singapore (click hyperlink) (S&P) Settlement. For more information, please go to www.iras.gov.sg - Gown Up Your House Woodlands East Industrial & Industrial Affiliation

There may also be a Code of Ethics and a Skilled Conduct Commonplace, as well as the introduction of disciplinary motion in opposition to errant brokers/businesses and dispute decision mechanisms. Preparations shall be made to manage the transition of existing agencies and agents to these new standards, which have but to be finalized. The Proposed Enchancment in High quality for Actual Property Businesses Wheelock Properties put up 95 items of The Panorama in Ang Mo Kio for balloting. With a reduction of 12 p.c, they claimed to promote 80 to eighty five units. Whereas developers are clearing their existing stock, every month there are new projects acquiring their HIGH and new sites released by the government to construct more private housing. The due date of each rental payment; or

To know who pays actual property commissions - whether or not it's sellers or buyers or both or if it is Landlord's or Tenant's or both Divisions vary. All Brokers work on a commission scheme that is determined by the experience, efficiency and various other elements equivalent to recruitment and many others. New brokers can receive from a range of 60%-70% of the full fee received by them from the closure of a deal. High producing brokers would possibly obtain 100% and pay the company (broker) a desk fee. Everybody else falls somewhere in between. Kindly discuss with the FAQ part of the CEA web site-www.cea.gov.sg Co-Broking / sharing of fee There isn't a set formulation. This is based on the demand and supply circumstances in the market. present agents have tertiary education.