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The concept of '''[[entropy]]''' developed in response to the observation that a certain amount of functional energy released from [[combustion reactions]] is always lost to dissipation or friction and is thus not transformed into [[Work (thermodynamics)|useful work]]. Early heat-powered engines such as [[Thomas Savery]]'s (1698), the [[Newcomen engine]] (1712) and the Cugnot [[steam tricycle]] (1769) were inefficient, converting less than two percent of the input energy into useful [[work output]]; a great deal of useful energy was dissipated or lost. Over the next two centuries, physicists investigated this puzzle of lost energy; the result was the concept of [[entropy]]. | |||
In the early 1850s, [[Rudolf Clausius]] set forth the concept of the [[thermodynamic system]] and posited the argument that in any [[irreversible process]] a small amount of [[heat]] energy ''δQ'' is incrementally dissipated across the system boundary. Clausius continued to develop his ideas of lost energy, and coined the term ''entropy''. | |||
Since the mid-20th century the concept of entropy has found application in the field of [[information theory]], describing an analogous loss of data in information transmission systems. | |||
==Classical thermodynamic views== | |||
{{Main|classical thermodynamics}} | |||
An early formulation of the Second Law by [[Thomas Aquinas]], in the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' (1274), is: "It is impossible for an effect to be stronger than its cause.".<ref>http://www.newadvent.org/summa/2029.htm#article3</ref> Here, "be stronger than" in modern terminology corresponds to "have less entropy than." Another early formulation is that "a cause must be equal to or greater than its effect."<ref>http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/4181986</ref> | |||
In 1803, mathematician [[Lazare Carnot]] published a work entitled ''Fundamental Principles of Equilibrium and Movement''. This work includes a discussion on the efficiency of fundamental machines, i.e. pulleys and inclined planes. Lazare Carnot saw through all the details of the mechanisms to develop a general discussion on the conservation of mechanical energy. Over the next three decades, Lazare Carnot’s theorem was taken as a statement that in any machine the accelerations and shocks of the moving parts all represent losses of ''moment of activity'', i.e. the [[Work (thermodynamics)|useful work]] done. From this Lazare drew the inference that [[perpetual motion]] was impossible. This ''loss of moment of activity'' was the first-ever rudimentary statement of the [[second law of thermodynamics]] and the concept of 'transformation-energy' or ''entropy'', i.e. energy lost to dissipation and friction.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Mendoza, E. |title=Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire – and other Papers on the Second Law of Thermodynamics by E. Clapeyron and R. Clausius|location=New York | publisher=Dover Publications |year=1988|isbn=0-486-44641-7}}</ref> | |||
Lazare Carnot died in exile in 1823. During the following year Lazare’s son [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]], having graduated from the [[École Polytechnique]] training school for engineers, but now living on half-pay with his brother Hippolyte in a small apartment in Paris, wrote the ''Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire''. In this paper, Sadi visualized an [[Carnot heat engine|ideal engine]] in which any heat (i.e., [[Caloric theory|caloric]]) converted into work, could be reinstated by reversing the motion of the cycle, a concept subsequently known as [[thermodynamic reversibility]]. Building on his father's work, Sadi postulated the concept that “some caloric is always lost” in the conversion into work, even in his idealized reversible heat engine, which excluded frictional losses and other losses due to the imperfections of any real machine. He also discovered that this idealized efficiency was dependent only on the temperatures of the heat reservoirs between which the engine was working, and not on the types of working fluids. Any real [[heat engine]] could not realize the [[Carnot cycle|Carnot cycle's]] reversibility, and was condemned to be even less efficient. This loss of usable caloric was a precursory form of the increase in entropy as we now know it. Though formulated in terms of caloric, rather than entropy, this was an early insight into the [[second law of thermodynamics]]. | |||
==1854 definition== | |||
[[Image:Clausius.jpg|225px|thumb|right|[[Rudolf Clausius]] - originator of the concept of '''"entropy"''']] | |||
In his 1854 memoir, Clausius first develops the concepts of ''interior work'', i.e. that "which the atoms of the body exert upon each other", and ''exterior work'', i.e. that "which arise from foreign influences [to] which the body may be exposed", which may act on a working body of fluid or gas, typically functioning to work a piston. He then discusses the three categories into which heat ''Q'' may be divided: | |||
#Heat employed in increasing the heat actually existing in the body. | |||
#Heat employed in producing the interior work. | |||
#Heat employed in producing the exterior work. | |||
Building on this logic, and following a mathematical presentation of the ''first fundamental theorem'', Clausius then presented the first-ever mathematical formulation of entropy, although at this point in the development of his theories he called it "equivalence-value", perhaps referring to the concept of the [[mechanical equivalent of heat]] which was developing at the time rather than entropy, a term which was to come into use later.<ref>''Mechanical Theory of Heat'', by [[Rudolf Clausius]], 1850-1865</ref> He stated:<ref>Published in Poggendoff’s Annalen, December 1854, vol. xciii. p. 481; translated in the Journal de Mathematiques, vol. xx. Paris, 1855, and in the Philosophical Magazine, August 1856, s. 4. vol. xii, p. 81</ref> | |||
<blockquote>the ''second fundamental theorem'' in the mechanical [[theory of heat]] may thus be enunciated: | |||
If two transformations which, without necessitating any other permanent change, can mutually replace one another, be called equivalent, then the generations of the quantity of heat ''Q'' from [[work (thermodynamics)|work]] at the temperature ''T'' , has the ''equivalence-value'': | |||
::<math> \frac {Q}{T}</math> | |||
and the passage of the quantity of heat ''Q'' from the [[temperature]] ''T<sub>1</sub>'' to the temperature ''T<sub>2</sub>'', has the equivalence-value: | |||
::<math> Q \left( \frac {1}{T_2} - \frac {1}{T_1}\right)</math> | |||
wherein ''T'' is a function of the temperature, independent of the nature of the process by which the transformation is effected.</blockquote> | |||
In modern terminology, we think of this equivalence-value as "entropy", symbolized by ''S''. Thus, using the above description, we can calculate the entropy change Δ''S'' for the passage of the quantity of [[heat]] ''Q'' from the [[temperature]] ''T<sub>1</sub>'', through the "working body" of fluid (see [[heat engine]]), which was typically a body of steam, to the temperature ''T<sub>2</sub>'' as shown below: | |||
[[Image:Entropy-diagram.png|right|325px|thumb|Diagram of Sadi Carnot's [[heat engine]], 1824]] | |||
If we make the assignment: | |||
:<math> S= \frac {Q}{T}</math> | |||
Then, the entropy change or "equivalence-value" for this transformation is: | |||
:<math> \Delta S = S_{\rm final} - S_{\rm initial} \, </math> | |||
which equals: | |||
:<math> \Delta S = \left(\frac {Q}{T_2} - \frac {Q}{T_1}\right)</math> | |||
and by factoring out Q, we have the following form, as was derived by Clausius: | |||
:<math> \Delta S = Q\left(\frac {1}{T_2} - \frac {1}{T_1}\right)</math> | |||
==1856 definition== | |||
In 1856, Clausius stated what he called the "second fundamental theorem in the [[mechanical theory of heat]]" in the following form: | |||
:<math>\int \frac{\delta Q}{T} = -N</math> | |||
where ''N'' is the "equivalence-value" of all uncompensated transformations involved in a cyclical process. This equivalence-value was a precursory formulation of entropy.<ref>Clausius, Rudolf. (1856). "''On the Application of the Mechanical theory of Heat to the Steam-Engine''." as found in: Clausius, R. (1865). [http://books.google.com/books?id=8LIEAAAAYAAJ The Mechanical Theory of Heat – with its Applications to the Steam Engine and to Physical Properties of Bodies]. London: John van Voorst, 1 Paternoster Row. MDCCCLXVII.</ref> | |||
==1862 definition== | |||
{{Main|disgregation}} | |||
In 1862, Clausius stated what he calls the “theorem respecting the equivalence-values of the transformations” or what is now known as the [[second law of thermodynamics]], as such: | |||
:''The algebraic sum of all the transformations occurring in a cyclical process can only be positive, or, as an extreme case, equal to nothing.'' | |||
Quantitatively, Clausius states the mathematical expression for this theorem is as follows. Let ''δQ'' be an element of the heat given up by the body to any reservoir of heat during its own changes, heat which it may absorb from a reservoir being here reckoned as negative, and ''T'' the [[absolute temperature]] of the body at the moment of giving up this heat, then the equation: | |||
:<math>\int \frac{\delta Q}{T} = 0</math> | |||
must be true for every reversible cyclical process, and the relation: | |||
:<math>\int \frac{\delta Q}{T} \ge 0</math> | |||
must hold good for every cyclical process which is in any way possible. This was an early formulation of the second law and one of the original forms of the concept of entropy. | |||
==1865 definition== | |||
In 1865, Clausius gave irreversible heat loss, or what he had previously been calling "equivalence-value", a name:<ref>{{Cite book| last = Laidler | first = Keith J. | title = The Physical World of Chemistry | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1995 | isbn = 0-19-855919-4 | pages = 104–105}}</ref><ref>[[OED]], Second Edition, 1989, "''Clausius (Pogg. Ann. CXXV. 390), assuming (unhistorically) the etymological sense of energy to be ‘work-contents’ (werk-inhalt), devised the term entropy as a corresponding designation for the ‘transformation-contents’ (verwandlungsinhalt) of a system"''</ref> | |||
{{cquote|I propose to name the quantity ''S'' the entropy of the system, after the Greek word [τροπη ''trope''], the transformation. I have deliberately chosen the word entropy to be as similar as possible to the word energy: the two quantities to be named by these words are so closely related in physical significance that a certain similarity in their names appears to be appropriate.}} | |||
Although Clausius did not specify why he chose the symbol "S" to represent entropy, it is arguable that Clausius chose "S" in honor of [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]], to whose 1824 article Clausius devoted over 15 years of work and research. On the first page of his original 1850 article "On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be Deduced from it for the Theory of Heat", Clausius calls Carnot the most important of the researchers in the [[theory of heat]].<ref name="Clausius" >{{Cite book| last = Clausius | first = Rudolf | title = On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the Theory of Heat | publisher = Poggendorff's ''Annalen der Physick'', LXXIX (Dover Reprint) | year = 1850 | isbn = 0-486-59065-8}}</ref> | |||
==Later developments== | |||
In 1876, physicist [[J. Willard Gibbs]], building on the work of Clausius, [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] and others, proposed that the measurement of "available energy" Δ''G'' in a thermodynamic system could be mathematically accounted for by subtracting the "energy loss" ''T''Δ''S'' from total energy change of the system Δ''H''. These concepts were further developed by [[James Clerk Maxwell]] [1871] and [[Max Planck]] [1903]. | |||
==Statistical thermodynamic views== | |||
{{Main|statistical thermodynamics}} | |||
In 1877, [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] formulated the alternative definition of entropy ''S'' defined as: | |||
:<math>S = k_{\rm B} \ln \Omega \!</math> | |||
where | |||
:''k''<sub>B</sub> is [[Boltzmann constant|Boltzmann's constant]] and | |||
:''Ω'' is the number of microstates consistent with the given macrostate. | |||
Boltzmann saw entropy as a measure of statistical "mixedupness" or disorder. This concept was soon refined by [[J. Willard Gibbs]], and is now regarded as one of the cornerstones of the theory of [[statistical mechanics]]. | |||
==Information theory== | |||
An analog to ''thermodynamic entropy'' is '''information entropy'''. In 1948, while working at [[Bell Telephone Company|Bell Telephone]] Laboratories electrical engineer [[Claude Elwood Shannon|Claude Shannon]] set out to mathematically quantify the statistical nature of “lost information” in phone-line signals. To do this, Shannon developed the very general concept of [[information entropy]], a fundamental cornerstone of [[information theory]]. Although the story varies, initially it seems that Shannon was not particularly aware of the close similarity between his new quantity and earlier work in thermodynamics. In 1949, however, when Shannon had been working on his equations for some time, he happened to visit the mathematician [[John von Neumann]]. During their discussions, regarding what Shannon should call the “measure of uncertainty” or attenuation in phone-line signals with reference to his new information theory, according to one source:<ref>M. Tribus, E.C. McIrvine, “Energy and information”, Scientific American, 224 (September 1971).</ref> | |||
:{{cquote|My greatest concern was what to call it. I thought of calling it ‘information’, but the word was overly used, so I decided to call it ‘uncertainty’. When I discussed it with John von Neumann, he had a better idea. Von Neumann told me, ‘You should call it entropy, for two reasons. In the first place your uncertainty function has been used in statistical mechanics under that name, so it already has a name. In the second place, and more important, nobody knows what entropy really is, so in a debate you will always have the advantage.}} | |||
According to another source, when von Neumann asked him how he was getting on with his information theory, Shannon replied:<ref>{{Cite book|author= Avery, John|title=Information Theory and Evolution|publisher=World Scientific|year=2003|isbn=981-238-400-6}}</ref> | |||
:{{cquote|The theory was in excellent shape, except that he needed a good name for “missing information”. “Why don’t you call it entropy”, von Neumann suggested. “In the first place, a mathematical development very much like yours already exists in Boltzmann’s statistical mechanics, and in the second place, no one understands entropy very well, so in any discussion you will be in a position of advantage.}} | |||
In 1948 Shannon published his famous paper ''A Mathematical Theory of Communication'', in which he devoted a section to what he calls Choice, Uncertainty, and Entropy.<ref>C.E. Shannon, "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", ''[[Bell System Technical Journal]]'', vol. 27, pp. 379-423, 623-656, July, October, 1948, [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/paper.html Eprint], [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/shannon1948.pdf PDF]</ref> In this section, Shannon introduces an ''H function'' of the following form: | |||
:<math>H = -K\sum_{i=1}^k p(i) \log p(i),</math> | |||
where ''K'' is a positive constant. Shannon then states that “any quantity of this form, where ''K'' merely amounts to a choice of a unit of measurement, plays a central role in information theory as measures of information, choice, and uncertainty.” Then, as an example of how this expression applies in a number of different fields, he references R.C. Tolman’s 1938 ''Principles of Statistical Mechanics'', stating that “the form of ''H'' will be recognized as that of entropy as defined in certain formulations of statistical mechanics where ''p<sub>i</sub>'' is the probability of a system being in cell ''i'' of its phase space… ''H'' is then, for example, the ''H'' in Boltzmann’s famous [[H-theorem|H theorem]].” As such, over the last fifty years, ever since this statement was made, people have been overlapping the two concepts or even stating that they are exactly the same. | |||
Shannon's information entropy is a much more general concept than statistical thermodynamic entropy. Information entropy is present whenever there are unknown quantities that can be described only by a probability distribution. In a series of papers by [[E. T. Jaynes]] starting in 1957,<ref>E. T. Jaynes (1957) [http://bayes.wustl.edu/etj/articles/theory.1.pdf Information theory and statistical mechanics], ''Physical Review'' '''106''':620</ref><ref>E. T. Jaynes (1957) [http://bayes.wustl.edu/etj/articles/theory.2.pdf Information theory and statistical mechanics II], ''Physical Review'' '''108''':171</ref> the statistical thermodynamic entropy can be seen as just a particular application of Shannon's information entropy to the probabilities of particular microstates of a system occurring in order to produce a particular macrostate. | |||
==Popular use== | |||
The term entropy is often used in popular language to denote a variety of unrelated phenomena. One example is the concept of '''corporate entropy''' as put forward somewhat humorously by authors Tom DeMarco and Timothy Lister in their 1987 classic publication ''Peopleware'', a book on growing and managing productive teams and successful software projects. Here, they view energy waste as red tape and business team inefficiency as a form of entropy, i.e. energy lost to waste. This concept has caught on and is now common jargon in business schools. | |||
In another example, entropy plays the main villain in [[Isaac Asimov]]'s short story [[The Last Question]] (first copyrighted in 1956). The story plays with the idea that when tampering with the Second law of thermodynamics, entropy must always increase. | |||
==Terminology overlap== | |||
When necessary, to disambiguate between the statistical thermodynamic concept of entropy, and entropy-like formulae put forward by different researchers, the statistical thermodynamic entropy is most properly referred to as the '''[[Gibbs entropy]]'''. The terms ''Boltzmann-Gibbs entropy'' or ''BG entropy'', and ''Boltzmann-Gibbs-Shannon entropy'' or ''BGS entropy'' are also seen in the literature. | |||
==See also== | |||
*[[Entropy]] | |||
*[[Enthalpy]] | |||
*[[Thermodynamic free energy]] | |||
==References== | |||
{{Reflist}} | |||
==External links== | |||
* [[Max Jammer]] (1973). [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-12 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'': Entropy] | |||
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Entropy}} | |||
[[Category:Thermodynamic entropy]] | |||
[[Category:History of thermodynamics]] | |||
Revision as of 17:30, 20 November 2013
The concept of entropy developed in response to the observation that a certain amount of functional energy released from combustion reactions is always lost to dissipation or friction and is thus not transformed into useful work. Early heat-powered engines such as Thomas Savery's (1698), the Newcomen engine (1712) and the Cugnot steam tricycle (1769) were inefficient, converting less than two percent of the input energy into useful work output; a great deal of useful energy was dissipated or lost. Over the next two centuries, physicists investigated this puzzle of lost energy; the result was the concept of entropy.
In the early 1850s, Rudolf Clausius set forth the concept of the thermodynamic system and posited the argument that in any irreversible process a small amount of heat energy δQ is incrementally dissipated across the system boundary. Clausius continued to develop his ideas of lost energy, and coined the term entropy.
Since the mid-20th century the concept of entropy has found application in the field of information theory, describing an analogous loss of data in information transmission systems.
Classical thermodynamic views
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An early formulation of the Second Law by Thomas Aquinas, in the Summa Theologica (1274), is: "It is impossible for an effect to be stronger than its cause.".[1] Here, "be stronger than" in modern terminology corresponds to "have less entropy than." Another early formulation is that "a cause must be equal to or greater than its effect."[2]
In 1803, mathematician Lazare Carnot published a work entitled Fundamental Principles of Equilibrium and Movement. This work includes a discussion on the efficiency of fundamental machines, i.e. pulleys and inclined planes. Lazare Carnot saw through all the details of the mechanisms to develop a general discussion on the conservation of mechanical energy. Over the next three decades, Lazare Carnot’s theorem was taken as a statement that in any machine the accelerations and shocks of the moving parts all represent losses of moment of activity, i.e. the useful work done. From this Lazare drew the inference that perpetual motion was impossible. This loss of moment of activity was the first-ever rudimentary statement of the second law of thermodynamics and the concept of 'transformation-energy' or entropy, i.e. energy lost to dissipation and friction.[3]
Lazare Carnot died in exile in 1823. During the following year Lazare’s son Sadi Carnot, having graduated from the École Polytechnique training school for engineers, but now living on half-pay with his brother Hippolyte in a small apartment in Paris, wrote the Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire. In this paper, Sadi visualized an ideal engine in which any heat (i.e., caloric) converted into work, could be reinstated by reversing the motion of the cycle, a concept subsequently known as thermodynamic reversibility. Building on his father's work, Sadi postulated the concept that “some caloric is always lost” in the conversion into work, even in his idealized reversible heat engine, which excluded frictional losses and other losses due to the imperfections of any real machine. He also discovered that this idealized efficiency was dependent only on the temperatures of the heat reservoirs between which the engine was working, and not on the types of working fluids. Any real heat engine could not realize the Carnot cycle's reversibility, and was condemned to be even less efficient. This loss of usable caloric was a precursory form of the increase in entropy as we now know it. Though formulated in terms of caloric, rather than entropy, this was an early insight into the second law of thermodynamics.
1854 definition
In his 1854 memoir, Clausius first develops the concepts of interior work, i.e. that "which the atoms of the body exert upon each other", and exterior work, i.e. that "which arise from foreign influences [to] which the body may be exposed", which may act on a working body of fluid or gas, typically functioning to work a piston. He then discusses the three categories into which heat Q may be divided:
- Heat employed in increasing the heat actually existing in the body.
- Heat employed in producing the interior work.
- Heat employed in producing the exterior work.
Building on this logic, and following a mathematical presentation of the first fundamental theorem, Clausius then presented the first-ever mathematical formulation of entropy, although at this point in the development of his theories he called it "equivalence-value", perhaps referring to the concept of the mechanical equivalent of heat which was developing at the time rather than entropy, a term which was to come into use later.[4] He stated:[5]
the second fundamental theorem in the mechanical theory of heat may thus be enunciated:
If two transformations which, without necessitating any other permanent change, can mutually replace one another, be called equivalent, then the generations of the quantity of heat Q from work at the temperature T , has the equivalence-value:
and the passage of the quantity of heat Q from the temperature T1 to the temperature T2, has the equivalence-value:
wherein T is a function of the temperature, independent of the nature of the process by which the transformation is effected.
In modern terminology, we think of this equivalence-value as "entropy", symbolized by S. Thus, using the above description, we can calculate the entropy change ΔS for the passage of the quantity of heat Q from the temperature T1, through the "working body" of fluid (see heat engine), which was typically a body of steam, to the temperature T2 as shown below:
If we make the assignment:
Then, the entropy change or "equivalence-value" for this transformation is:
which equals:
and by factoring out Q, we have the following form, as was derived by Clausius:
1856 definition
In 1856, Clausius stated what he called the "second fundamental theorem in the mechanical theory of heat" in the following form:
where N is the "equivalence-value" of all uncompensated transformations involved in a cyclical process. This equivalence-value was a precursory formulation of entropy.[6]
1862 definition
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. In 1862, Clausius stated what he calls the “theorem respecting the equivalence-values of the transformations” or what is now known as the second law of thermodynamics, as such:
- The algebraic sum of all the transformations occurring in a cyclical process can only be positive, or, as an extreme case, equal to nothing.
Quantitatively, Clausius states the mathematical expression for this theorem is as follows. Let δQ be an element of the heat given up by the body to any reservoir of heat during its own changes, heat which it may absorb from a reservoir being here reckoned as negative, and T the absolute temperature of the body at the moment of giving up this heat, then the equation:
must be true for every reversible cyclical process, and the relation:
must hold good for every cyclical process which is in any way possible. This was an early formulation of the second law and one of the original forms of the concept of entropy.
1865 definition
In 1865, Clausius gave irreversible heat loss, or what he had previously been calling "equivalence-value", a name:[7][8]
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Although Clausius did not specify why he chose the symbol "S" to represent entropy, it is arguable that Clausius chose "S" in honor of Sadi Carnot, to whose 1824 article Clausius devoted over 15 years of work and research. On the first page of his original 1850 article "On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be Deduced from it for the Theory of Heat", Clausius calls Carnot the most important of the researchers in the theory of heat.[9]
Later developments
In 1876, physicist J. Willard Gibbs, building on the work of Clausius, Hermann von Helmholtz and others, proposed that the measurement of "available energy" ΔG in a thermodynamic system could be mathematically accounted for by subtracting the "energy loss" TΔS from total energy change of the system ΔH. These concepts were further developed by James Clerk Maxwell [1871] and Max Planck [1903].
Statistical thermodynamic views
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In 1877, Ludwig Boltzmann formulated the alternative definition of entropy S defined as:
where
- kB is Boltzmann's constant and
- Ω is the number of microstates consistent with the given macrostate.
Boltzmann saw entropy as a measure of statistical "mixedupness" or disorder. This concept was soon refined by J. Willard Gibbs, and is now regarded as one of the cornerstones of the theory of statistical mechanics.
Information theory
An analog to thermodynamic entropy is information entropy. In 1948, while working at Bell Telephone Laboratories electrical engineer Claude Shannon set out to mathematically quantify the statistical nature of “lost information” in phone-line signals. To do this, Shannon developed the very general concept of information entropy, a fundamental cornerstone of information theory. Although the story varies, initially it seems that Shannon was not particularly aware of the close similarity between his new quantity and earlier work in thermodynamics. In 1949, however, when Shannon had been working on his equations for some time, he happened to visit the mathematician John von Neumann. During their discussions, regarding what Shannon should call the “measure of uncertainty” or attenuation in phone-line signals with reference to his new information theory, according to one source:[10]
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Banks usually engage skilled valuers to conduct valuations of properties. The valuers are required to abide by industry requirements and guidelines for property valuation prescribed by the Singapore Institute of Surveyors and Valuers. With Singapore conserving its greenery and with town sky view being the attraction to many, it is no wonder that increasingly condos are being developed on the island. Many future traders are placing extra value on units with a view than these with out one. Thus, this may be one of the reasons too as to why your unit of selection is either with a view or with out. How to Spot Abroad Property Scams (at Propwise.sg) New Condominium Eco Sanctuary Launch 01Dec 2012 Coming Quickly !!! New launch rental COCO Palm at Pasir Ris
Association charges has to be paid by each condominium proprietor, weather you are dwelling in it or not, or even in case you have rented the property. So, whether you employ the amenities and amenities at the condominium, you'll any how must pay for them. JOHOR BAHARU, Jan 22 (Bernama) — The property market in Johor Baharu and Iskandar Malaysia has been negatively affected by the cooling measures introduced by the authorities to address rising property prices, says the Actual Property and Housing Developers' Association of Malaysia (Rehda). District 18, 99 years LH Executive Apartment District 25, ninety nine years LH Executive Rental District 19, ninety nine years LH Government Apartment pipelines. Property homeowners haven't any different but to pay up. There's no different sensible Hottest Launch D'Leedon
Dr Victor Lee is a surgeon gazetted to carry out multi-organ transplant surgical procedure. He underwent his fellowship coaching in transplant surgery on the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, United Kingdom in 2008 and 2009. He is presently a consultant surgeon at the Singapore Normal Hospital, and visiting guide to the National College Hospital. His scientific interest and skills are in the areas of transplant surgery, hepatobiliary pancreatic surgery and laparoscopic surgical procedure.
Lush Acres Government Condominium goes to launch quickly at Sengkang West Method By Metropolis Developments Limited. Lush Acres reflects the large expense of house, environmentally-inexperienced constructing and plush panorama of this low density development with solely 22% of website protection. There have been students, retirees and property agents napping, snacking and taking part in cards within the queue to kill time. Such a scene made passers-by wonder if the gang really consisted of genuine consumers, or just part-timers being paid to fake how sizzling the new undertaking was. The model was filed in Switzerland in October 2009 with a model r egistration dated March 25, 2010 A deposit was also recorded in France at the INPI (National Institute of Intellectual Property) Coastal commercial spaceports
Individuals all wish to be seen having the identical foresight because the specialists in property investment or the massive names in their own fields. Thus the discharge of these tales works to motivate other patrons to follow go well with. Bartley Ridge is the hottest new launch in district 13. Irresistible pricing from $1,1xx psf. Bartley Ridge is a ninety nine-yr leasehold new condo at Mount Vernon highway, excellent subsequent to Bartley MRT station (CC12). If you wish to get more Rehda Johor chairman Koh Moo Hing stated potential property patrons within the two areas at the moment are adopting a wait-and-see angle. How can I get the ebrochure and flooring plans of the new launch initiatives ? The Current Mortgage to your HDB District thirteen, Freehold condominium District 11, Freehold Cluster landed house Sea Horizon EC @ Pasir Ris
The simplest way is to contact a real estate agent who's a Advertising Workforce Member The agent will doubtless meet to show you details of the undertaking supplied by the developer. Attending a preview doesn't suggest you are obliged to purchase a unit. You can select not to and your cheque will likely be returned to you. No cost concerned. Your cheque will likely be returned to you in the event you decide to not proceed to purchase. Early hen low cost (up to 10%) at the preview earlier than the official launch. The purpose of that is to stimulate demand and to create a buying house in singapore momentum. As soon as this function is achieved, the developer would then take away the low cost so as to maximize his profitability. 2/3/4 bedrooms units obtainable ! GREATEST PURCHASE NOW !!! AVG $1900psf The Key Commercial Cluster in the North Area
According to another source, when von Neumann asked him how he was getting on with his information theory, Shannon replied:[11]
- Benefits of Living in a Rental or Landed property in Singapore Property New Launches & Undertaking Showcase In Singapore Many residential Singapore property gross sales contain shopping for property in Singapore at new launches. These are often properties below development, being sold new by developers. New Launch Singapore Property, 28 Imperial Residences Coming To Geylang Lorong 26 The property market is slowing down, in accordance with personal property transactions in Could Cellular Apps FREE Signal Up Log in Property Agents Feedback
Banks usually engage skilled valuers to conduct valuations of properties. The valuers are required to abide by industry requirements and guidelines for property valuation prescribed by the Singapore Institute of Surveyors and Valuers. With Singapore conserving its greenery and with town sky view being the attraction to many, it is no wonder that increasingly condos are being developed on the island. Many future traders are placing extra value on units with a view than these with out one. Thus, this may be one of the reasons too as to why your unit of selection is either with a view or with out. How to Spot Abroad Property Scams (at Propwise.sg) New Condominium Eco Sanctuary Launch 01Dec 2012 Coming Quickly !!! New launch rental COCO Palm at Pasir Ris
Association charges has to be paid by each condominium proprietor, weather you are dwelling in it or not, or even in case you have rented the property. So, whether you employ the amenities and amenities at the condominium, you'll any how must pay for them. JOHOR BAHARU, Jan 22 (Bernama) — The property market in Johor Baharu and Iskandar Malaysia has been negatively affected by the cooling measures introduced by the authorities to address rising property prices, says the Actual Property and Housing Developers' Association of Malaysia (Rehda). District 18, 99 years LH Executive Apartment District 25, ninety nine years LH Executive Rental District 19, ninety nine years LH Government Apartment pipelines. Property homeowners haven't any different but to pay up. There's no different sensible Hottest Launch D'Leedon
Dr Victor Lee is a surgeon gazetted to carry out multi-organ transplant surgical procedure. He underwent his fellowship coaching in transplant surgery on the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, United Kingdom in 2008 and 2009. He is presently a consultant surgeon at the Singapore Normal Hospital, and visiting guide to the National College Hospital. His scientific interest and skills are in the areas of transplant surgery, hepatobiliary pancreatic surgery and laparoscopic surgical procedure.
Lush Acres Government Condominium goes to launch quickly at Sengkang West Method By Metropolis Developments Limited. Lush Acres reflects the large expense of house, environmentally-inexperienced constructing and plush panorama of this low density development with solely 22% of website protection. There have been students, retirees and property agents napping, snacking and taking part in cards within the queue to kill time. Such a scene made passers-by wonder if the gang really consisted of genuine consumers, or just part-timers being paid to fake how sizzling the new undertaking was. The model was filed in Switzerland in October 2009 with a model r egistration dated March 25, 2010 A deposit was also recorded in France at the INPI (National Institute of Intellectual Property) Coastal commercial spaceports
Individuals all wish to be seen having the identical foresight because the specialists in property investment or the massive names in their own fields. Thus the discharge of these tales works to motivate other patrons to follow go well with. Bartley Ridge is the hottest new launch in district 13. Irresistible pricing from $1,1xx psf. Bartley Ridge is a ninety nine-yr leasehold new condo at Mount Vernon highway, excellent subsequent to Bartley MRT station (CC12). If you wish to get more Rehda Johor chairman Koh Moo Hing stated potential property patrons within the two areas at the moment are adopting a wait-and-see angle. How can I get the ebrochure and flooring plans of the new launch initiatives ? The Current Mortgage to your HDB District thirteen, Freehold condominium District 11, Freehold Cluster landed house Sea Horizon EC @ Pasir Ris
The simplest way is to contact a real estate agent who's a Advertising Workforce Member The agent will doubtless meet to show you details of the undertaking supplied by the developer. Attending a preview doesn't suggest you are obliged to purchase a unit. You can select not to and your cheque will likely be returned to you. No cost concerned. Your cheque will likely be returned to you in the event you decide to not proceed to purchase. Early hen low cost (up to 10%) at the preview earlier than the official launch. The purpose of that is to stimulate demand and to create a buying house in singapore momentum. As soon as this function is achieved, the developer would then take away the low cost so as to maximize his profitability. 2/3/4 bedrooms units obtainable ! GREATEST PURCHASE NOW !!! AVG $1900psf The Key Commercial Cluster in the North Area
In 1948 Shannon published his famous paper A Mathematical Theory of Communication, in which he devoted a section to what he calls Choice, Uncertainty, and Entropy.[12] In this section, Shannon introduces an H function of the following form:
where K is a positive constant. Shannon then states that “any quantity of this form, where K merely amounts to a choice of a unit of measurement, plays a central role in information theory as measures of information, choice, and uncertainty.” Then, as an example of how this expression applies in a number of different fields, he references R.C. Tolman’s 1938 Principles of Statistical Mechanics, stating that “the form of H will be recognized as that of entropy as defined in certain formulations of statistical mechanics where pi is the probability of a system being in cell i of its phase space… H is then, for example, the H in Boltzmann’s famous H theorem.” As such, over the last fifty years, ever since this statement was made, people have been overlapping the two concepts or even stating that they are exactly the same.
Shannon's information entropy is a much more general concept than statistical thermodynamic entropy. Information entropy is present whenever there are unknown quantities that can be described only by a probability distribution. In a series of papers by E. T. Jaynes starting in 1957,[13][14] the statistical thermodynamic entropy can be seen as just a particular application of Shannon's information entropy to the probabilities of particular microstates of a system occurring in order to produce a particular macrostate.
Popular use
The term entropy is often used in popular language to denote a variety of unrelated phenomena. One example is the concept of corporate entropy as put forward somewhat humorously by authors Tom DeMarco and Timothy Lister in their 1987 classic publication Peopleware, a book on growing and managing productive teams and successful software projects. Here, they view energy waste as red tape and business team inefficiency as a form of entropy, i.e. energy lost to waste. This concept has caught on and is now common jargon in business schools.
In another example, entropy plays the main villain in Isaac Asimov's short story The Last Question (first copyrighted in 1956). The story plays with the idea that when tampering with the Second law of thermodynamics, entropy must always increase.
Terminology overlap
When necessary, to disambiguate between the statistical thermodynamic concept of entropy, and entropy-like formulae put forward by different researchers, the statistical thermodynamic entropy is most properly referred to as the Gibbs entropy. The terms Boltzmann-Gibbs entropy or BG entropy, and Boltzmann-Gibbs-Shannon entropy or BGS entropy are also seen in the literature.
See also
References
43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.
External links
- ↑ http://www.newadvent.org/summa/2029.htm#article3
- ↑ http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/4181986
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ Mechanical Theory of Heat, by Rudolf Clausius, 1850-1865
- ↑ Published in Poggendoff’s Annalen, December 1854, vol. xciii. p. 481; translated in the Journal de Mathematiques, vol. xx. Paris, 1855, and in the Philosophical Magazine, August 1856, s. 4. vol. xii, p. 81
- ↑ Clausius, Rudolf. (1856). "On the Application of the Mechanical theory of Heat to the Steam-Engine." as found in: Clausius, R. (1865). The Mechanical Theory of Heat – with its Applications to the Steam Engine and to Physical Properties of Bodies. London: John van Voorst, 1 Paternoster Row. MDCCCLXVII.
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ OED, Second Edition, 1989, "Clausius (Pogg. Ann. CXXV. 390), assuming (unhistorically) the etymological sense of energy to be ‘work-contents’ (werk-inhalt), devised the term entropy as a corresponding designation for the ‘transformation-contents’ (verwandlungsinhalt) of a system"
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ M. Tribus, E.C. McIrvine, “Energy and information”, Scientific American, 224 (September 1971).
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ C.E. Shannon, "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, pp. 379-423, 623-656, July, October, 1948, Eprint, PDF
- ↑ E. T. Jaynes (1957) Information theory and statistical mechanics, Physical Review 106:620
- ↑ E. T. Jaynes (1957) Information theory and statistical mechanics II, Physical Review 108:171