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[[File:Lift-induced vortices behind aircraft (DLR demonstration).ogv|thumb|Lift-induced vortices behind a jet aircraft are evidenced by smoke on a runway]]
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[[File:2011-06-05 19-32 Berlin TXL Airplane Flyover plus Wingtip Vortex.ogg|thumb|An audio recording of lift-induced vortices heard shortly after an airliner overfly]]
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'''Wingtip vortices''' are circular patterns of rotating air left behind a [[wing]] as it generates [[Lift (force)|lift]].<ref name=Clancy5.14>Clancy, L.J., ''Aerodynamics'', section 5.14</ref>  One wingtip [[vortex]] trails from the [[Wing tip|tip]] of each wing.  Wingtip vortices are sometimes named ''trailing'' or ''lift-induced vortices'' because they also occur at points other than at the wing tips.<ref name=Clancy5.14/> Indeed, vorticity is trailed at any point on the wing where the lift varies span-wise (a fact described and quantified by the [[lifting-line theory]]); it eventually rolls up into large vortices near the wingtip, at the edge of [[Flap (aircraft)|flap devices]], or at other abrupt changes in [[planform|wing planform]].
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Wingtip vortices are associated with [[induced drag]], the imparting of [[downwash]], and are a fundamental consequence of three-dimensional lift generation.<ref>Clancy, L.J., ''Aerodynamics'', sections 5.17 and 8.9</ref> Careful selection of wing geometry (in particular, [[Aspect ratio (wing)|aspect ratio]]), as well as of cruise conditions, are design and operational methods to minimize induced drag.
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Wingtip vortices form the primary component of [[wake turbulence]]. Depending on ambient atmospheric humidity as well as the geometry and wing loading of aircraft, water may condense or freeze in the core of the vortices, making the vortices visible.
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== Generation of trailing vortices ==
'''source'''
[[Image:Tip vortex rollup.png|thumb|Euler computation of a tip vortex rolling up from the trailed vorticity sheet.]]
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When a wing generates [[lift (force)|aerodynamic lift]] the air on the top surface has lower pressure relative to the bottom surface. Air flows from below the wing and out around the tip to the top of the wing in a circular fashion. An emergent circulatory flow pattern named [[vortex]] is observed, featuring a low-pressure core.


Three-dimensional lift and the occurrence of wingtip vortices can be approached with the concept of [[horseshoe vortex]] and described accurately with the [[Lifting-line theory|Lanchester–Prandtl theory]]. In this view, the trailing vortex is a continuation of the ''wing-bound vortex'' inherent to the lift generation.
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If viewed from the tail of the airplane, looking forward in the direction of flight, there is one wingtip vortex trailing from the left-hand wing and circulating clockwise, and another one trailing from the right-hand wing and circulating anti-clockwise. The result is a region of downwash behind the aircraft, between the two vortices.
==Demos==


The two wingtip vortices do not merge because they are circulating in opposite directions. They dissipate slowly and linger in the atmosphere long after the airplane has passed. They are a hazard to other aircraft, known as [[wake turbulence]].
Here are some [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ListFiles/Frederic.wang demos]:


== Effects and mitigation ==


[[File:Air France Boeing 777-300ER planform view.jpg|thumb|Modern airliners often feature [[Aspect ratio (wing)|slender wings]] and [[wingtip device]]s]]
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Wingtip vortices are associated with [[induced drag]], an unavoidable consequence of three-dimensional lift generation. The rotary motion of the air within the shed wingtip vortices (sometimes described as a "leakage") reduces the effective [[angle of attack]] of the air on the wing.
==Test pages ==


The [[lifting-line theory]] describes the shedding of trailing vortices as span-wise changes in lift distribution. For a given wing span and surface, minimal induced drag is obtained with an [[Elliptical wing|elliptical lift distribution]]. For a given lift distribution and surface, induced drag is reduced with increasing [[Aspect ratio (wing)|aspect ratio]].
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As a consequence, aircraft for which a high [[lift-to-drag ratio]] is desirable, such as [[Glider aircraft|gliders]] or long-range [[airliner]]s, typically have high aspect ratio wings. Such wings however have disadvantages with respect to structural constraints and manoeuvrability, as evidenced by [[Fighter aircraft|combat]] and [[Aerobatics|aerobatic]] planes which usually feature short, stubby wings despite the efficiency losses.
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Another method of reducing induced drag is the use of [[Wingtip device|winglets]], as seen on most modern airliners. Winglets increase the effective aspect ratio of the wing, changing the pattern and magnitude of the [[vorticity]] in the vortex pattern. A reduction is achieved in the kinetic energy in the circular air flow, which reduces the amount of fuel expended to perform work upon the spinning air.
==Bug reporting==
 
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== Visibility of vortices ==
 
[[File:FA-18C vapor LEX and wingtip 1.jpg|thumb|Vortices shed at the tips and from the [[leading-edge extension]]s of an F/A-18]]
 
The cores of the vortices are sometimes visible because water present in them [[condensation|condenses]] from [[gas]] ([[vapor]]) to [[liquid]], and sometimes even freezes, forming ice particles.
 
Condensation of water vapor in wing tip vortices is most common on aircraft flying at high [[angle of attack|angles of attack]], such as fighter aircraft in high [[g-force|''g'']] maneuvers, or [[airliner]]s taking off and landing on humid days.
 
=== Aerodynamic condensation and freezing ===
{{Anchor|Discussion of the physics of aerodynamic condensation and freezing}}
 
The cores of vortices spin at very high speed and are regions of very low pressure. To [[Orders of approximation|first approximation]], these low-pressure regions form with little exchange of heat with the neighboring regions (i.e., [[Adiabatic process|adiabatically]]), so the local temperature in the low-pressure regions drops, too.<ref name="Green Fluid Vortices">Green, S. I. [http://books.google.com/books?id=j6qE7YAwwCoC&pg=PA427&lpg=PA427&dq=condensation+in+wingtip+vortices&source=bl&ots=S8a5ApDgog&sig=wMqbujbSVVVVGJ9yNq9CnQyW368&hl=en&ei=E6BLSpj2FZqytwfT0PibDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8 “Wing tip vortices”] in ''Fuid vortices,'' S. I. Green, ed. ([[Kluwer]], Amsterdam, 1995) pp. 427-470. ISBN 978-0-7923-3376-0</ref>  If it drops below the local [[dew point]], there results a condensation of water vapor present in the cores of wingtip vortices, making them visible.<ref name="Green Fluid Vortices"/> The temperature may even drop below the local [[freezing point]], in which case ice crystals will form inside the cores.<ref name="Green Fluid Vortices" />
 
The [[Phase (matter)|phase]] of water (i.e., whether it assumes the form of a solid, liquid, or gas) is determined by its [[temperature]] and [[pressure]]. For example, in the case of liquid-gas transition, at each pressure there is a special “transition temperature” <math>T_{c}</math> such that if the sample temperature is even a little above <math>T_{c}</math>, the sample will be a gas, but, if the sample temperature is even a little below <math>T_{c}</math>, the sample will be a liquid; see [[phase transition]]. For example, at the [[standard conditions|standard atmospheric pressure]], <math>T_{c}</math> is 100&nbsp;°C&nbsp;=&nbsp;212&nbsp;°F. The transition temperature <math>T_{c}</math> decreases with decreasing pressure (which explains why water boils at lower temperatures at higher altitudes and at higher temperatures in a [[pressure cooker]]; see [[Vapor pressure#Water vapor pressure|here]] for more information). In the case of water vapor in air, the <math>T_{c}</math> corresponding to the [[partial pressure]] of water vapor is called the [[dew point]]. (The solid–liquid transition also happens around a specific transition temperature called the [[melting point]]. For most substances, the melting point also decreases with decreasing pressure, although water ice in particular - in its [[Ice Ih|I<sub>h</sub> form]], which is [[Phases of ice|the most familiar one]] - is a prominent [[Water (properties)|exception to this rule]].)
 
Vortex cores are regions of low pressure. As a vortex core begins to form, the water in the air (in the region that is about to become the core) is in vapor phase, which means that the local temperature is above the local dew point. After the vortex core forms, the pressure inside it has decreased from the ambient value, and so the local dew point (<math>T_{c}</math>) has dropped from the ambient value. Thus, ''in and of itself'', a drop in pressure would tend to keep water in vapor form: The initial dew point was already below the ambient air temperature, and the formation of the vortex has made the local dew point even lower. However, as the vortex core forms, its pressure (and so its dew point) is not the only property that is dropping: The vortex-core temperature is dropping also, and in fact it can drop by much more than the dew point does, as we now explain.
 
Here we follow the discussion in Ref.<ref name="Green Fluid Vortices" /> To [[Orders of approximation|first approximation]], the formation of vortex cores is [[thermodynamics|thermodynamically]] an [[adiabatic process]], i.e., one with no exchange of heat. In such a process, the drop in pressure is accompanied by a drop in temperature, according to the equation
 
:<math>\frac{T_{\text{f}}}{T_{\text{i}}}=\left(\frac{p_{\text{f}}}{p_{\text{i}}}\right)^{\frac{\gamma -1}{\gamma}}.</math>
 
Here <math>T_{\text{i}}</math> and <math>p_{\text{i}}</math> are the [[Thermodynamic temperature|absolute temperature]] and pressure at the beginning of the process (here equal to the ambient air temperature and pressure), <math>T_{\text{f}}</math> and <math>p_{\text{f}}</math> are the absolute temperature and pressure in the vortex core (which is the end result of the process), and the constant <math>\gamma</math> is about 7/5&nbsp;=&nbsp;1.4 for air (see [[Adiabatic process#Ideal gas (reversible case only)|here]]).
 
Thus, even though the local dew point inside the vortex cores is even lower than in the ambient air, the water vapor may nevertheless condense — if the formation of the vortex brings the local temperature below the new local dew point. Let's verify that this can indeed happen under realistic conditions.
 
For a typical transport aircraft landing at an airport, these conditions are as follows: We may take <math>T_{\text{i}}</math> and <math>p_{\text{i}}</math> to have values corresponding to the so-called [[standard conditions]], i.e., <math>p_{\text{i}}</math>&nbsp;=&nbsp;1&nbsp;[[Atmosphere (unit)|atm]]&nbsp;=&nbsp;1013.25&nbsp;[[Bar (unit)|mb]]&nbsp;=&nbsp;101<math>\,</math>325&nbsp;[[Pascal (unit)|Pa]] and <math>T_{\text{i}}</math>&nbsp;=&nbsp;293.15&nbsp;[[Kelvin (unit)|K]] (which is 20&nbsp;°C&nbsp;=&nbsp;68&nbsp;°F). We will take the [[relative humidity]] to be a [[dew point#Human reaction to high dew points|comfortable]] 35% (dew point of 4.1&nbsp;°C&nbsp;=&nbsp;39.4&nbsp;°F). This corresponds to a [[partial pressure]] of water vapor of 820&nbsp;Pa&nbsp;=&nbsp;8.2&nbsp;mb. We will assume that in a vortex core, the pressure (<math>p_{\text{f}}</math>) drops to about 80% of the ambient pressure, i.e., to about 80&nbsp;000&nbsp;Pa.<ref name="Green Fluid Vortices" />
 
Let's <!--"Let us" does not mean "let's."-->first determine the temperature in the vortex core. It is given by the equation above as <math>T_{\text{f}}=\left(\frac{\scriptstyle 80\,000}{\scriptstyle 101\,325}\right)^{\scriptscriptstyle 0.4/1.4}\,T_{\text{i}}= 0.935\,\times\,293.15=274\;\text{K},</math> or 0.86&nbsp;°C&nbsp;=&nbsp;33.5&nbsp;°F.
 
Next, we determine the dew point in the vortex core. The partial pressure of water in the vortex core drops in proportion to the drop in the total pressure (i.e., by the same percentage), to about 650&nbsp;Pa&nbsp;=&nbsp;6.5&nbsp;mb. According to a dew point calculator at [http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/javascript/water-properties.html this site] (as an alternative, one may use the [[Antoine equation]] to obtain an approximate value), that partial pressure results in the local dew point of about 0.86&nbsp;°C; in other words, the new local dew point is about equal to the new local temperature.
 
Therefore, the case we have been considering is a marginal case; if the relative humidity of the ambient air were even a bit higher (with the total pressure and temperature remaining as above), then the local dew point inside the vortices would rise, while the local temperature would remain the same as what we have just found. Thus, the local temperature would now be ''lower'' than the local dew point, and so the water vapor inside the vortices would indeed condense. Under right conditions, the local temperature in vortex cores may drop below the local [[freezing point]], in which case ice particles will form inside the vortex cores.
 
We have just seen that the water-vapor condensation mechanism in wingtip vortices is driven by local changes in air pressure and temperature. This is to be contrasted to what happens in another well-known case of water condensation related to airplanes: the [[contrail]]s from airplane engine exhausts. In the case of contrails, the local air pressure and temperature do not change significantly; what matters instead is that the exhaust contains both water vapor (which increases the local water-vapor [[concentration]] and so its partial pressure, resulting in elevated dew point and freezing point) as well as [[aerosol]]s (which provide [[Nucleation|nucleation centers]] for the [[Condensation (aerosol dynamics)|condensation]] and freezing).<ref>[http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/GLOBE/science.html NASA, Contrail Science]{{dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref>
 
== Formation flight ==
[[File:CanadianGeeseFlyingInVFormation.jpg|thumb|[[Canada goose|Canada geese]] in [[V formation]] make use of each bird's wingtip vortices]]
 
Migratory birds take advantage of each other's wingtip vortices by flying in a [[V formation]] so that all but the leader are flying in the [[downwash|upwash]] from the wing of the bird ahead. This upwash makes it easier for the bird to support its own weight, reducing fatigue on migration flights.<ref>{{cite conference |author=Thien, H.P. |author2=Moelyadi, M.A |author3=Muhammad, H.  |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/0804.3879 |title=Effects of Leader’s Position and Shape on Aerodynamic Performances of V Flight Formation, Paper No. ICIUS2007-A008 |booktitle=Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Unmanned System (ICIUS 2007) | pages=1–7| date=October 24–25, 2007 |location=Bali, Indonesia |publisher=Aeronautics and Astronautics Department Bandung Institute of Technology (via Arxiv.org) |accessdate=29 May 2014}} <br/>([http://arxiv.org/pdf/0804.3879v1 Download paper]. {{PDF|336 Kb}})</ref>
 
== Hazards ==
[[Image:Airplane vortex edit.jpg|thumb|right|A [[NASA]] study on wingtip vortices produced illustrating the size of the vortices produced.]]
 
Wingtip vortices can pose a hazard to aircraft, especially during the [[landing]] and [[takeoff]] phases of flight. The intensity or strength of the vortex is a function of aircraft size, speed, and configuration (flap setting, etc.). The strongest vortices are produced by heavy aircraft, flying slowly, {{Citation needed span|text=with [[Flap (aircraft)|wing flaps]] and landing gear retracted ("heavy, slow, and clean")|date=July 2012}}.  Large [[jet aircraft]] can generate vortices that can persist for many minutes, drifting with the wind.
 
The hazardous aspects of wingtip vortices are most often discussed in the context of [[wake turbulence]].  If a light aircraft is immediately preceded by a heavy aircraft, wake turbulence from the heavy aircraft can roll the light aircraft faster than can be resisted by use of ailerons. At low altitudes, in particular during takeoff and landing, this can lead to an upset from which recovery is not possible.  [[Air traffic controller]]s attempt to ensure an adequate separation between departing and arriving aircraft by issuing wake turbulence warnings to pilots.
 
== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:EA-6B Prowler from VAQ-138.jpg|An [[EA-6 Prowler]] with condensation in the cores of its wingtip vortices and also on the top of its wings.
Image:Wingtip condensation.jpg|The core of the vortex trailing from the tip of the [[Flap (aircraft)|flap]] of a commercial airplane with landing flap extended.
Image:Cessna 182 model-wingtip-vortex.jpg|Wingtip vortices from a Cessna 182 [[wind tunnel]] model.
Image:C17-Vortex.JPG|Wingtip vortices shown in [[Flare (countermeasure)|flare]] smoke left behind a [[C-17 Globemaster III]].  Also known as smoke angels.
file:DN-SD-06-03008.JPG|The [[MV-22 Osprey]] [[tiltrotor]] has a high [[disk loading]], producing visible blade tip vorticies.
File:Euler tip vortex.png|Euler computation of a steady tip vortex. Contour colours and isosurface reveal vorticity.
File:Model in Vortex Facility - GPN-2000-001288.jpg|A [[Boeing 747]] model has just passed through a stationary sheet of smoke, which is showing its trailing vortices, at the Vortex Facility at the [[Langley Research Center]].
</gallery>
 
== See also ==
* [[Aspect ratio (wing)]]
* [[Contrail]]
* [[Helmholtz's theorems]]
* [[Horseshoe vortex]]
* [[Lift-induced drag]]
* [[V formation]]
* [[Vortex]]
* [[Wake turbulence]]
 
==References==
*Clancy, L.J. (1975), ''Aerodynamics'', Pitman Publishing Limited, London ISBN 0-273-01120-0
 
===Notes===
{{reflist}}
 
==External links==
{{Commons|Wingtip vortices}}
*Video from [[NASA]]'s [[Dryden Flight Research Center]] tests on wingtip vortices:
**[[C-5 Galaxy]]: [http://www1.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/Movie/C-5A/HTML/EM-0085-01.html]
**[[Lockheed L-1011]]: [http://www1.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/Movie/L-1011/index.html]
*[http://www.ll.mit.edu/AviationWeather/WW-11077_WindPrediction.pdf Wind prediction for analysis of vortex drift]
*[http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap060822.html Flares released by an air force jet form a "smoke angel"]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PpUftG_mxg8 Wingtip Vortices during a landing - Video at Youtube]
 
{{Aviation lists}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Wingtip Vortices}}
[[Category:Aviation risks]]
[[Category:Aerodynamics]]
[[Category:Vortices]]
[[Category:Aircraft wing design]]
 
[[ja:ウェーク・タービュランス]]

Latest revision as of 23:52, 15 September 2019

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