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{{About|the atomic variants of chemical elements|the British jazz fusion band|Isotope (band)|other uses|Isotope (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Isotopes|the minor league baseball team|Albuquerque Isotopes}}
{{confuse|isotrope}}
{{Nuclear physics|cTopic=Nuclides' classification}}
[[File:Protium deuterium tritium.jpg|thumb|300px|The three naturally-occurring [[isotopes of hydrogen]]. The fact that each isotope has one proton makes them all variants of [[hydrogen]]: the identity of the isotope is given by the number of neutrons. From left to right, the isotopes are [[hydrogen|protium]] (<sup>1</sup>H) with zero neutrons, [[deuterium]] (<sup>2</sup>H) with one neutron, and [[tritium]] (<sup>3</sup>H) with two neutrons.]]
 
'''Isotopes''' are variants of a particular [[chemical element]] such that, while all isotopes of a given element have the same number of [[proton]]s in each [[atom]], they differ in  [[neutron number]]. The term isotope is formed from the Greek roots isos ([[wikt:ἴσος|ἴσος]] "equal") and topos ([[wikt:τόπος|τόπος]] "place"), meaning "the same place". Thus, different isotopes of a single element occupy the same position on the [[periodic table]]. The number of protons within the [[atomic nucleus|atom's nucleus]] is called [[atomic number]] and is equal to the number of  [[electron]]s in the neutral (un-ionized) atom. Each atomic number identifies a specific element, but not the isotope; an atom of a given element may have a wide range in its number of [[neutron]]s. The number of [[nucleon]]s (both protons and neutrons) in the nucleus is the atom's [[mass number]], and each isotope of a given element has a different mass number.
 
For example, [[carbon-12]], [[carbon-13]] and [[carbon-14]] are three isotopes of the element [[carbon]] with mass numbers 12, 13 and 14 respectively. The atomic number of carbon is 6, which means that every carbon atom has 6 protons, so that the [[neutron number]]s of these isotopes are 6, 7 and 8 respectively.
 
==Isotope vs. nuclide==
Atoms with identical nuclei belong to one ''[[nuclide]]'', for example each carbon-13 nucleus is composed of 6 protons and 7 neutrons. The ''nuclide'' concept (referring to individual nuclear species) emphasizes nuclear properties over chemical properties, while the ''isotope'' concept (grouping all atoms of each element) emphasizes [[chemistry|chemical]] over nuclear. The neutron number has large effects on nuclear properties, but its effect on chemical properties is negligible for most elements. Even in the case of the very lightest elements where the ratio of neutron number to atomic number varies the most between isotopes it usually has only a small effect, although it does matter in some circumstances (for hydrogen, the lightest element, the isotope effect is large enough to strongly affect biology). Since ''isotope'' is the older term, it is better known than ''nuclide'', and is still sometimes used in contexts where ''nuclide'' might be more appropriate, such as [[nuclear technology]] and [[nuclear medicine]].
 
==Notation==
An isotope and/or nuclide is specified by the name of the particular element (this indicates the atomic number implicitly) followed by a hyphen and the mass number (e.g. [[helium-3]], [[helium-4]], [[carbon-12]], [[carbon-14]], [[uranium-235]] and [[uranium-239]]).<ref>[[IUPAC]] (Connelly, N. G.; Damhus, T.; Hartshorn, R. M.; and Hutton, A. T.), [http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/rbook/Red_Book_2005.pdf ''Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry – IUPAC Recommendations 2005''], The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2005; IUPAC (McCleverty, J. A.; and Connelly, N. G.), ''Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry II. Recommendations 2000'', The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2001; IUPAC (Leigh, G. J.), ''Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (recommendations 1990)'', Blackwell Science, 1990; IUPAC, [http://pac.iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/1971/pdf/2801x0001.pdf ''Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, Second Edition''], 1970; probably in the 1958 first edition as well</ref> When a [[chemical symbol]] is used, e.g., "C" for carbon, standard notation (now known as "AZE notation" because ''A'' is the [[mass number]], ''Z'' the [[atomic number]], and E for [[chemical element|element]]) is to indicate the number of nucleons with a [[superscript]] at the upper left of the chemical symbol and to indicate the atomic number with a [[subscript]] at the lower left (e.g. {{Nuclide2|He|3}}, {{Nuclide2|He|4}}, {{Nuclide2|C|12}}, {{Nuclide2|C|14}}, {{Nuclide2|U|235}}, and {{Nuclide2|U|239}}, respectively).<ref>This notation seems to have been introduced in the second half of the 1930s. Before that, various notations were used, such as [http://books.google.ca/books?id=jkMcAQAAIAAJ&q=isotope&hl=en Ne(22) for neon-22 (1934)], [http://books.google.ca/books?id=7KQOAAAAIAAJ&q=neon-22+Ne22&hl=en Ne<sup>22</sup> for neon-22 (1935)], or even [http://books.google.ca/books?id=HD7OAAAAMAAJ&q=isotope&hl=en Pb<sub>210</sub> for lead-210 (1933)].</ref> Since the atomic number is implied by the element symbol, it is common to state only the mass number in the superscript and leave out the atomic number subscript (e.g. {{SimpleNuclide2|He|3}}, {{SimpleNuclide2|He|4}}, {{SimpleNuclide2|C|12}}, {{SimpleNuclide2|C|14}}, {{SimpleNuclide2|U|235}}, and {{SimpleNuclide2|U|239}}, respectively). The letter ''m'' is sometimes appended after the mass number to indicate a [[nuclear isomer]], a [[metastable]] or energetically-excited nuclear state (rather than the lowest-energy [[ground state]]), for example {{Nuclide2|Tantalum|180|m}} ([[tantalum-180m]]).
 
==Radioactive, primordial, and stable isotopes==
Some isotopes are [[radioactive]], and are therefore described as radioisotopes or [[radionuclide]]s, while others have never been observed to undergo radioactive decay and are described as stable isotopes or [[stable nuclide]]s. For example, {{SimpleNuclide2|C|14}} is a radioactive form of carbon while {{SimpleNuclide2|C|12}} and {{SimpleNuclide2|C|13}} are stable isotopes. There are about 339 naturally occurring nuclides on Earth,<ref name="lindsay">{{cite web|url=http://www.don-lindsay-archive.org/creation/isotope_list.html|title=Radioactives Missing From The Earth}}</ref> of which 288 are [[primordial nuclide]]s, meaning that they have existed since the solar system's formation.
 
Primordial nuclides include 35 nuclides with very long [[Half-life|half-lives]] (over 80 million years) and 254 that are formally considered as "[[stable nuclide]]s",<ref name="lindsay"/> since they have not been observed to decay. In most cases, for obvious reasons, if an element has stable isotopes, those isotopes predominate in the elemental abundance found on Earth and in the solar system. However, in the cases of three elements (tellurium, indium, and rhenium) the most abundant isotope found in nature is actually one (or two) extremely long lived radioisotope(s) of the element, despite these elements having one or more stable isotopes.
 
Many apparently "stable" isotopes/nuclides are predicted by theory to be radioactive, with extremely long half-lives (this does not count the possibility of [[proton decay]], which would make all nuclides ultimately unstable). Of the 254 nuclides never observed to decay, only 90 of these (all from the first 40 elements) are stable in theory to all known forms of decay. Element 41 ([[niobium]]) is theoretically unstable via [[spontaneous fission]], but this has never been detected. Many other stable nuclides are in theory energetically susceptible to other known forms of decay, such as alpha decay or double beta decay, but no decay products have yet been observed, and so these isotopes are described as "observationally stable". The predicted half-lives for these nuclides often greatly exceed the estimated age of the universe, and in fact there are also 27 known radionuclides (see [[primordial nuclide]]) with half-lives longer than the age of the universe.
 
Adding in the radioactive nuclides that have been created artificially, there are more than [[Table of nuclides (combined)|3100 currently known nuclides]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/help/index.jsp|title=NuDat 2 Description}}</ref> These include 905 nuclides that are either stable or have half-lives longer than 60 minutes. See [[list of nuclides]] for details.
 
== History==
 
===Radioactive isotopes===
The existence of isotopes was first suggested in 1913 by the [[radiochemistry|radiochemist]] [[Frederick Soddy]], based on studies of radioactive [[decay chain]]s that indicated about 40 different species described as ''radioelements'' (i.e. radioactive elements) between uranium and lead, although the periodic table only allowed for 11 elements from uranium to lead.<ref>Choppin, G.; Liljenzin, J. O. and Rydberg, J.　（1995） ''Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry'' (2nd ed.) Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 3–5</ref><ref>Others had also suggested the possibility of isotopes; e.g.,
* Strömholm, Daniel and Svedberg, Theodor (1909) "Untersuchungen über die Chemie der radioactiven Grundstoffe II." (Investigations into the chemistry of the radioactive elements, part 2), ''Zeitschrift für anorganischen Chemie'', '''63''': 197–206; see especially page 206.
* Alexander Thomas Cameron, ''Radiochemistry'' (London, England: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1910), p. 141. (Cameron also anticipated the displacement law.)</ref>
 
Several attempts to separate these new radioelements chemically had failed.<ref name=Scerri>Scerri, Eric R. (2007) ''The Periodic Table'' Oxford University Press, pp. 176–179 ISBN 0195305736</ref> For example, Soddy had shown in 1910 that [[mesothorium]] (later shown to be <sup>228</sup>Ra), [[radium]] (<sup>226</sup>Ra, the longest-lived isotope), and [[isotopes of radium|thorium X]] (<sup>224</sup>Ra) are impossible to separate.<ref name=Nagel/> Attempts to place the radioelements in the periodic table led Soddy and [[Kazimierz Fajans]] independently to propose their [[Radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy|radioactive displacement law]] in 1913, to the effect that [[alpha decay]] produced an element two places to the left in the periodic table, while [[beta decay]] emission produced an element one place to the right.<ref>See:
*  Kasimir Fajans (1913) "Über eine Beziehung zwischen der Art einer radioaktiven Umwandlung und dem elektrochemischen Verhalten der betreffenden Radioelemente" (On a relation between the type of radioactive transformation and the electrochemical behavior of the relevant radioactive elements), ''Physikalische Zeitschrift'', '''14''': 131–136.
*  Soddy announced his "displacement law" in: {{cite journal|doi=10.1038/091057a0|title=The Radio-Elements and the Periodic Law|year=1913|last1=Soddy|first1=Frederick|journal=Nature|volume=91|issue=2264|pages=57|bibcode = 1913Natur..91...57S }}.
*  Soddy elaborated his displacement law in: Soddy, Frederick (1913) "Radioactivity," ''Chemical Society Annual Report'', '''10''': 262–288.
*  Alexander Smith Russell (1888–1972) also published a displacement law: Russell, Alexander S. (1913) "The periodic system and the radio-elements," ''Chemical News and Journal of Industrial Science'', '''107''': 49–52.
</ref> Soddy recognized that emission of an alpha particle followed by two beta particles led to the formation of an element chemically identical to the initial element but with a mass four units lighter and with different radioactive properties.
 
Soddy proposed that several types of atoms (differing in radioactive properties) could occupy the same place in the table. For example, the alpha-decay of uranium-235 forms thorium-231, while the beta decay of actinium-230 forms thorium-230<ref name=Scerri/> The term "isotope", Greek for "at the same place", was suggested to Soddy by [[Margaret Todd (doctor)|Margaret Todd]], a Scottish physician and family friend, during a conversation in which he explained his ideas to her.<ref name=Nagel>{{cite journal|author=Nagel, Miriam C.|title=Frederick Soddy: From Alchemy to Isotopes|journal=Journal of Chemical Education|year=1982|volume=59|pages=739–740|doi=10.1021/ed059p739|issue=9|bibcode = 1982JChEd..59..739N }}</ref><ref>Soddy first used the word "isotope" in: {{cite journal|author=Soddy, Frederick |year=1913|url=http://www.nature.com/physics/looking-back/soddy/index.html |title=Intra-atomic charge|journal=Nature|volume=92|pages=399–400|doi=10.1038/092399c0|issue=2301|bibcode = 1913Natur..92..399S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Fleck, Alexander |year=1957|title=Frederick Soddy|journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society|volume=3|pages=203–216|quote=p. 208:  Up to 1913 we used the phrase 'radio elements chemically non-separable' and at that time the word isotope was suggested in a drawing-room discussion with Dr. Margaret Todd in the home of Soddy's father-in-law, Sir [[George Beilby]].|doi=10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014}}</ref><ref name="pmid16134128">{{cite journal |author=Budzikiewicz H and Grigsby RD |title=Mass spectrometry and isotopes: a century of research and discussion |journal=Mass spectrometry reviews |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=146–57 |year=2006 |pmid=16134128 |doi=10.1002/mas.20061}}</ref><ref>Scerri, Eric R. (2007) ''The Periodic Table'', Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195305736, Ch. 6, note 44 (p. 312) citing [[Alexander Fleck]], described as a former student of Soddy's.</ref><ref>In his 1893 book, William T. Preyer also used the word "isotope" to denote similarities among elements. From [http://books.google.com/books?id=8zDsAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA9 p. 9] of William T. Preyer, ''Das genetische System der chemischen Elemente'' [The genetic system of the chemical elements] (Berlin, Germany: R. Friedländer & Sohn, 1893): "Die ersteren habe ich der Kürze wegen isotope Elemente genannt, weil sie in jedem der sieben Stämmme der gleichen Ort, nämlich dieselbe Stuffe, einnehmen." (For the sake of brevity, I have named the former "isotopic" elements, because they occupy the same place in each of the seven families [i.e., columns of the periodic table], namely the same step [i.e., row of the periodic table]. [In other words, each element in a given row of the periodic table has chemical properties that are similar ("isotopic") to those of the other elements in the same column of the periodic table.])</ref>
 
[[Image:Discovery of neon isotopes.JPG|frame|right|In the bottom right corner of [[J. J. Thomson]]'s photographic plate are the separate impact marks for the two isotopes of [[neon]]: neon-20 and neon-22.]]
 
In 1914 [[Theodore William Richards|T. W. Richards]] found variations between the atomic weight of lead from different mineral sources, attributable to variations in isotopic composition due to different radioactive origins.<ref name=Scerri/><ref>[http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy-lecture.html The origins of the conceptions of isotopes] Frederick Soddy, Nobel prize lecture</ref>
 
===Stable isotopes===
The first evidence for multiple isotopes of a stable (non-radioactive) element was found by [[J. J. Thomson]] in 1913 as part of his exploration into the composition of [[canal rays]] (positive ions).<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/14786440808637325|title=XIX. Further experiments on positive rays|year=1912|last1=Thomson|first1=J. J.|journal=Philosophical Magazine Series 6|volume=24|issue=140|pages=209}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/14786441008636962|url=http://archive.org/details/RaysOfPositiveElectricity|title=LXXXIII. Rays of positive electricity|year=1910|last1=Thomson|first1=J. J.|journal=Philosophical Magazine Series 6|volume=20|issue=118|pages=752}}</ref> Thomson channeled streams of [[neon]] ions through a magnetic and an electric field and measured their deflection by placing a photographic plate in their path. Each stream created a glowing patch on the plate at the point it struck. Thomson observed two separate patches of light on the photographic plate (see image), which suggested two different parabolas of deflection. Thomson eventually concluded that some of the atoms in the neon gas were of higher mass than the rest.
 
[[Francis William Aston|F. W. Aston]] subsequently discovered multiple stable isotopes for numerous elements using a [[mass spectrograph]]. In 1919 Aston studied neon with sufficient [[Resolution (mass spectrometry)|resolution]] to show that the two isotopic masses are very close to the integers 20 and 22, and that neither is equal to the known molar mass (20.2) of neon gas. This is an example of Aston's [[whole number rule]] for isotopic masses, which states that large deviations of elemental molar masses from integers are primarily due to the fact that the element is a mixture of isotopes. Aston similarly showed that the molar mass of [[chlorine]] (35.45) is a weighted average of the almost integral masses for the two isotopes Cl-35 and Cl-37.<ref>[http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1922/aston-lecture.html Mass spectra and isotopes] Francis W. Aston, Nobel prize lecture 1922</ref>
 
== Variation in properties between isotopes==
{{See also|Neutron-proton ratio}}
=== Chemical and molecular properties ===
A neutral atom has the same number of electrons as protons. Thus, different isotopes of a given element all have the same number of protons and share a similar electronic structure. Because the chemical behavior of an atom is largely determined by its electronic structure, different isotopes exhibit nearly identical chemical behavior. The main exception to this is the [[kinetic isotope effect]]: due to their larger masses, heavier isotopes tend to react somewhat more slowly than lighter isotopes of the same element. This is most pronounced for [[hydrogen-1|protium]] ({{SimpleNuclide2|H|1}}) and [[deuterium]] ({{SimpleNuclide2|H|2}}), because deuterium has twice the mass of protium. The mass effect between deuterium and the relatively light protium also affects the behavior of their respective chemical bonds, by means of changing the center of gravity ([[reduced mass]]) of the atomic systems. However, for heavier elements, which have more neutrons than lighter elements, the ratio of the nuclear mass to the collective electronic mass is far greater, and the relative mass difference between isotopes is much less. For these two reasons, the mass-difference effects on chemistry are usually negligible.
[[Image:Isotopes and half-life.svg|right|thumb|Isotope half-lives. Note that the plot for stable isotopes diverges from the line ''Z'' = ''N'' as the element number ''Z'' becomes larger|346x346px]]
In similar manner, two [[molecules]] that differ only in the isotopic nature of their atoms (''[[isotopologue]]s'') will have identical electronic structure and therefore almost indistinguishable physical and chemical properties (again with deuterium providing the primary exception to this rule). The '''vibrational modes''' of a molecule are determined by its shape and by the masses of its constituent atoms. As a consequence, isotopologues will have different sets of vibrational modes. Since vibrational modes allow a molecule to absorb [[photon]]s of corresponding energies, isotopologues have different optical properties in the [[infrared]] range.
 
=== Nuclear properties and stability ===
{{See also|Stable isotope|List of nuclides|List of elements by stability of isotopes}}
Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons bound together by the [[residual strong force]]. Because protons are positively charged, they repel each other. Neutrons, which are electrically neutral, stabilize the nucleus in two ways. Their copresence pushes protons slightly apart, reducing the electrostatic repulsion between the protons, and they exert the attractive nuclear force on each other and on protons. For this reason, one or more neutrons are necessary for two or more protons to be bound into a nucleus. As the number of protons increases, so does the ratio of neutrons to protons necessary to ensure a stable nucleus (see graph at right). For example, although the neutron:proton ratio of {{Nuclide2|He|3|link=yes}} is 1:2, the neutron:proton ratio of {{Nuclide2|U|238}} is greater than 3:2. A number of lighter elements have stable nuclides with the ratio 1:1 (''Z'' = ''N''). The nuclide {{Nuclide2|Ca|40}} (calcium-40) is observationally the heaviest stable nuclide with the same number of neutrons and protons; (theoretically, the heaviest stable one is sulfur-32). All stable nuclides heavier than calcium-40 contain more neutrons than protons.
 
=== Numbers of isotopes per element ===
Of the 80 elements with a stable isotope, the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten (for the element [[tin]]). No element has nine stable isotopes. Xenon is the only element with eight stable isotopes. Four elements have seven stable isotopes, eight have six stable isotopes, ten have five stable isotopes, nine have four stable isotopes, five have three stable isotopes, 16 have two stable isotopes (counting {{Nuclide2|Ta|180|m|link=yes}} as stable), and 26 elements have only a single stable isotope (of these, 19 are so-called [[mononuclidic element]]s, having a single primordial stable isotope that dominates and fixes the atomic weight of the natural element to high precision; 3 radioactive '''mononuclidic''' elements occur as well).<ref name=nuclidetable>{{cite web|url=http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/|title=Interactive Chart of Nuclides|publisher=Brookhaven National Laboratory|author='''Sonzogni''', Alejandro|location=National Nuclear Data Center|year=2008|accessdate=2013-05-03}}</ref> In total, there are 254 nuclides that have not been observed to decay. For the 80 elements that have one or more stable isotopes, the average number of stable isotopes is 254/80 = 3.2 isotopes per element.
 
=== Even and odd nucleon numbers===
{{main|Even and odd atomic nuclei}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; text-align:right; margin-left:1em"
|+Even/odd ''Z'', ''N'' (Hydrogen-1 [[parity of zero|included as OE]])
!p,n!!EE!!OO!!EO!!OE!!Total
|-
|Stable ||148||5||53||48||254
|-
|Long-lived||22||4||4||5||35
|-
|All primordial||170||9||57||53||289
|}
The proton:neutron ratio is not the only factor affecting nuclear stability. It depends also on evenness or oddness of its atomic number ''Z'', neutron number ''N'' and, consequently, of their sum, the mass number ''A''. Oddness of both ''Z'' and ''N'' tends to lower the [[nuclear binding energy]], making odd nuclei, generally, less stable. This remarkable difference of nuclear binding energy between neighbouring nuclei, especially of odd-''A'' [[isobar (nuclide)|isobars]], has important consequences: unstable isotopes with a nonoptimal number of neutrons or protons decay by [[beta decay]] (including positron decay), [[electron capture]] or other exotic means, such as [[spontaneous fission]] and [[cluster decay]].
 
The majority of stable nuclides are even-proton-even-neutron, where all numbers ''Z'', ''N'', and ''A'' are even. The odd-''A'' stable nuclides are divided (roughly evenly) into odd-proton-even-neutron, and even-proton-odd-neutron nuclides. Odd-proton-odd-neutron nuclei are the least common.
 
==== Even atomic number ====
The 148 even-proton, even-neutron (EE) nuclides comprise ~ 58% of all stable nuclides and all have [[Spin (physics)|spin]] 0 because of pairing. There are also 22 primordial long-lived even-even nuclides. As a result, each of the 41 even-numbered elements from 2 to 82 has [[List of elements by stability of isotopes|at least one stable isotope]], and most of these elements have ''several'' primordial isotopes. Half of these even-numbered elements have six or more stable isotopes. The extreme stability of helium-4 due to a double [[Semi-empirical mass formula#Pairing term|pairing]] of 2 protons and 2 neutrons prevents ''any'' nuclides containing five or eight nucleons from existing for long enough to serve as platforms for the buildup of heavier elements via [[nuclear fusion]] in stars (see [[triple alpha process]]).
 
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em"
|+Even-odd long-lived
! !![[Decay mode|Decay]]!![[Half-life]]
|-
|{{Nuclide2|Cadmium|113|link=yes}} ||[[beta decay|beta]] ||7.7{{e|15}} [[annum|a]]
|-
|{{Nuclide2|Tellurium|123|link=yes}} ||[[beta decay|beta]] ||6.0{{e|14}} [[annum|a]]
|-
|{{Nuclide2|Samarium|147|link=yes}} ||[[beta decay|beta]] ||1.06{{e|11}} [[annum|a]]
|-
|{{Nuclide2|Uranium|235|link=yes}}||[[alpha decay|alpha]] ||7.04{{e|8}} [[annum|a]]
|}
These 53 stable nuclides have an even number of protons and an odd number of neutrons. They are a minority in comparison to the even-even isotopes, which are about 3 times as numerous. Among the 41 even-''Z'' elements that have a stable nuclide, only three elements (argon, cerium, and lead) have no even-odd stable nuclides. One element (tin) has three. There are 24 elements that have one even-odd nuclide and 13 that have two odd-even nuclides. Of 35 primordial radionuclides there exist four even-odd nuclides (see table at right), including the [[fissile]] {{Nuclide2|Uranium|235|link=yes}}. Because of their odd neutron numbers, the even-odd nuclides tend to have large [[neutron capture]] cross sections, due to the energy that results from neutron-pairing effects. These stable even-proton odd-neutron nuclides tend to be uncommon by abundance in nature, generally because in order to form and be enter into primordial abundance, they must have escaped capturing neutrons to form yet other stable even-even isotopes, during both the [[s-process]] and [[r-process]] of neutron capture, during [[stellar nucleosynthesis|nucleosynthesis in stars]]. For this reason, only {{Nuclide2|Platinum|195|link=yes}} and {{Nuclide2|Beryllium|9|link=yes}} are the most naturally abundant isotopes of their element.
 
====Odd atomic number====
48 stable odd-proton-even-neutron nuclides, stabilized by their even numbers of paired neutrons, form most of the stable isotopes of the odd-numbered elements; the very few odd-odd nuclides comprise the others. There are 41 odd-numbered elements with ''Z'' = 1 through 81, with 39 of these having any stable isotopes (the elements [[technetium]] ({{PhysicsParticle|Tc|BL=43}}) and [[promethium]] ({{PhysicsParticle|Pm|BL=61}}) have no stable isotopes). Of these 39 odd ''Z'' elements, 30 elements (including hydrogen-1 where 0 neutrons is [[parity of zero|even]]) have one stable odd-even isotope, and nine elements: [[chlorine]] ({{PhysicsParticle|Cl|BL=17}}),
[[potassium]] ({{PhysicsParticle|K|BL=19}}),
[[copper]] ({{PhysicsParticle|Cu|BL=29}}),
[[gallium]] ({{PhysicsParticle|Ga|BL=31}}),
[[bromine]] ({{PhysicsParticle|Br|BL=35}}),
[[silver]] ({{PhysicsParticle|Ag|BL=47}}),
[[antimony]] ({{PhysicsParticle|Sb|BL=51}}),
[[iridium]] ({{PhysicsParticle|Ir|BL=77}}),
and [[thallium]] ({{PhysicsParticle|Tl|BL=81}}), have two odd-even stable isotopes each. This makes a total 30 + 2(9) = 48 stable odd-even isotopes.
 
There are also five primordial long-lived radioactive odd-even isotopes, {{Nuclide2|Rubidium|87|link=yes}}, {{Nuclide2|Indium|115|link=yes}}, {{Nuclide2|Rhenium|187|link=yes}}, {{Nuclide2|Europium|151|link=yes}}, and {{Nuclide2|Bismuth|209|link=yes}}. The last two were only recently found to decay, with half-lives greater than 10<sup>18</sup> years.
 
Only five stable nuclides contain both an odd number of protons ''and'' an odd number of neutrons. The first four "odd-odd" nuclides occur in low mass nuclides, for which changing a proton to a neutron or vice versa would lead to a very lopsided [[proton-neutron ratio]] ({{Nuclide2|Hydrogen|2|link=yes}}, {{Nuclide2|Lithium|6|link=yes}}, {{Nuclide2|Boron|10|link=yes}}, and {{Nuclide2|Nitrogen|14|link=yes}}; spins 1, 1, 3, 1). The only other entirely "stable" odd-odd nuclide is {{Nuclide2|Tantalum|180|m|link=yes}} (spin 9), the only primordial [[nuclear isomer]], which has not yet been observed to decay despite experimental attempts.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.apradiso.2009.01.057 |title=Search for the radioactivity of 180mTa using an underground HPGe sandwich spectrometer |year=2009 |last1=Hult |first1=Mikael |last2=Wieslander |first2=J. S. |last3=Marissens |first3=Gerd |last4=Gasparro |first4=Joël |last5=Wätjen |first5=Uwe |last6=Misiaszek |first6=Marcin |journal=Applied Radiation and Isotopes |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=918–21 |pmid=19246206}}</ref> Hence, all observationally stable odd-odd nuclides have nonzero integer spin. This is because the single unpaired neutron and unpaired proton have a larger [[nuclear force]] attraction to each other if their spins are aligned (producing a total spin of at least 1 unit), instead of anti-aligned. See [[deuterium]] for the simplest case of this nuclear behavior.
 
Many odd-odd radionuclides (like tantalum-180) with comparatively short half lives are known. Usually, they beta-decay to their nearby even-even [[isobar (nuclide)|isobars]] that have paired protons and paired neutrons. Of the nine primordial odd-odd nuclides (five stable and four radioactive with long half lives), only {{Nuclide2|Nitrogen|14|link=yes}} is the most common isotope of a common element. This is the case because it is a part of the [[CNO cycle]]. The nuclides {{Nuclide2|Lithium|6|link=yes}} and {{Nuclide|Boron|10|link=yes}} are minority isotopes of elements that are themselves rare compared to other light elements, while the other six isotopes make up only a tiny percentage of the natural abundance of their elements. For example, {{Nuclide2|Tantalum|180|m}} is thought to be the rarest of the 254 [[stable isotope]]s.
 
====Odd neutron number====
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em"
|+Neutron number [[parity (mathematics)|parity]] (<sup>1</sup>H with 0 neutrons included as [[parity of zero|even]])
!N !!Even!!Odd
|-
|Stable||196||58
|-
|Long-lived||27||8
|-
|All primordial||223||66
|}
 
[[Actinide]]s with odd neutron number are generally [[fissile]] (with [[thermal neutron]]s), while those with even neutron number are generally not, though they are [[fissionable]] with [[fast neutron]]s.
Only {{Nuclide2|Platinum|195}}, {{Nuclide2|Beryllium|9}} and {{Nuclide2|Nitrogen|14}} have odd neutron number and are the most naturally abundant isotope of their element.
 
== Occurrence in nature ==
{{See also|Abundance of the chemical elements}}
Elements are composed of one or more naturally occurring isotopes. The unstable (radioactive) isotopes are either [[primordial nuclide|primordial]] or postprimordial. Primordial isotopes were a product of [[stellar nucleosynthesis]] or another type of nucleosynthesis such as [[cosmic ray spallation]], and have persisted down to the present because their rate of decay is so slow (e.g., [[uranium-238]] and [[potassium-40]]). Postprimordial isotopes were created by [[cosmic ray]] bombardment as [[cosmogenic nuclide]]s (e.g., [[tritium]], [[carbon-14]]), or by the decay of a radioactive primordial isotope to a radioactive [[radiogenic nuclide]] daughter (e.g., [[uranium]] to [[radium]]). A few isotopes also continue to be naturally synthesized as [[nucleogenic]] nuclides, by some other natural [[nuclear reaction]], such as when neutrons from natural [[nuclear fission]] are absorbed by another atom.
 
As discussed above, only 80 elements have any stable isotopes, and 26 of these have only one stable isotope. Thus, about two thirds of stable elements occur naturally on Earth in multiple stable isotopes, with the largest number of stable isotopes for an element being ten, for [[tin]] ({{PhysicsParticle|Sn|BL=50}}). There are about 94 elements found naturally on Earth (up to [[plutonium]] inclusive), though some are detected only in very tiny amounts, such as [[plutonium-244]]. Scientists estimate that the elements that occur naturally on Earth (some only as radioisotopes) occur as 339 isotopes ([[nuclide]]s) in total.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.don-lindsay-archive.org/creation/isotope_list.html |title=Radioactives Missing From The Earth |publisher=Don-lindsay-archive.org |date= |accessdate=2012-06-16}}</ref> Only 254 of these naturally occurring isotopes are stable in the sense of never having been observed to decay as of the present time. An additional 35 [[primordial nuclide]]s (to a total of 289 primordial nuclides), are radioactive with known half-lives, but have half-lives longer than 80 million years, allowing them to exist from the beginning of the solar system. See [[list of nuclides]] for details.
 
All the known [[stable isotopes]] occur naturally on Earth; the other naturally occurring-isotopes are radioactive but occur on Earth due to their relatively long half-lives, or else due to other means of ongoing natural production. These include the afore-mentioned [[cosmogenic nuclide]]s, the [[nucleogenic]] nuclides, and any [[radiogenic]] radioisotopes formed by ongoing decay of a primordial radioactive isotope, such as [[radon]] and [[radium]] from uranium.
 
An additional ~3000 radioactive isotopes not found in nature have been created in nuclear reactors and in particle accelerators. Many short-lived isotopes not found naturally on Earth have also been observed by spectroscopic analysis, being naturally created in stars or supernovae. An example is [[aluminium-26]], which is not naturally found on Earth, but which is found in abundance on an astronomical scale.
 
The tabulated atomic masses of elements are averages that account for the presence of multiple isotopes with different masses. Before the discovery of isotopes, empirically determined noninteger values of atomic mass confounded scientists. For example, a sample of [[chlorine]] contains 75.8% [[chlorine-35]] and 24.2% [[chlorine-37]], giving an average atomic mass of 35.5 [[atomic mass unit]]s.
 
According to generally accepted [[physical cosmology|cosmology theory]], only isotopes of hydrogen and helium, traces of some isotopes of lithium and beryllium, and perhaps some boron, were created at the [[Big Bang]], while all other isotopes were synthesized later, in stars and supernovae, and in interactions between energetic particles such as cosmic rays, and previously produced isotopes. (See [[nucleosynthesis]] for details of the various processes thought to be responsible for isotope production.) The respective abundances of isotopes on Earth result from the quantities formed by these processes, their spread through the galaxy, and the rates of decay for isotopes that are unstable. After the initial coalescence of the solar system, isotopes were redistributed according to mass, and the isotopic composition of elements varies slightly from planet to planet. This sometimes makes it possible to trace the origin of meteorites.
 
==Atomic mass of isotopes==
The atomic mass (''m''<sub>r</sub>) of an isotope is determined mainly by its [[mass number]] (i.e. number of [[nucleon]]s in its nucleus). Small corrections are due to the [[binding energy]] of the nucleus (see [[mass defect]]), the slight difference in mass between proton and neutron, and the mass of the electrons associated with the atom, the latter because the electron:nucleon ratio differs among isotopes.
 
The mass number is a [[dimensionless quantity]]. The atomic mass, on the other hand, is measured using the [[atomic mass unit]] based on the mass of the carbon-12 atom. It is denoted with symbols "u" (for unified atomic mass unit) or "Da" (for [[John Dalton|dalton]]).
 
The atomic masses of naturally occurring isotopes of an element determine the [[atomic mass]] of the element. When the element contains ''N'' isotopes, the expression below is applied for the average atomic mass <math>\overline m_a</math>:
 
<math> \overline m_a = m_1 x_1+m_2 x_2+...+m_Nx_N</math>
 
where ''m''<sub>1</sub>, ''m''<sub>2</sub>, ..., ''m''<sub>''N''</sub> are the atomic masses of each individual isotope, and ''x''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''x''<sub>''N''</sub> are the relative abundances of these isotopes.
 
== Applications of isotopes ==
 
=== Purification of isotopes ===
{{main|isotope separation}}
Several applications exist that capitalize on properties of the various isotopes of a given element. [[Isotope separation]] is a significant technological challenge, particularly with heavy elements such as uranium or plutonium. Lighter elements such as lithium, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are commonly separated by gas diffusion of their compounds such as CO and NO. The separation of hydrogen and deuterium is unusual since it is based on chemical rather than physical properties, for example in the [[Girdler sulfide process]]. Uranium isotopes have been separated in bulk by gas diffusion, gas centrifugation, laser ionization separation, and (in the [[Manhattan Project]]) by a type of production [[mass spectrometry]].
 
=== Use of chemical and biological properties ===
{{Main|isotope geochemistry|cosmochemistry|paleoclimatology}}
* [[Isotope analysis]] is the determination of [[isotopic signature]], the relative abundances of isotopes of a given element in a particular sample. For [[biogenic substance]]s in particular, significant variations of isotopes of C, N and O can occur. Analysis of such variations has a wide range of applications, such as the detection of adulteration in food products<ref name=Jamin>{{cite journal|author=E. Jamin ''et al.'' |title=Improved Detection of Added Water in Orange Juice by Simultaneous Determination of the Oxygen-18/Oxygen-16 Isotope Ratios of Water and Ethanol Derived from Sugars |journal=[[J. Agric. Food Chem.]]|volume= 51|page=5202|year=2003|doi=10.1021/jf030167m|issue=18|last2=Guérin|first2=Régis|last3=Rétif|first3=Mélinda|last4=Lees|first4=Michèle|last5=Martin|first5=Gérard J.}}</ref> or the geographic origins of products using [[isoscapes]]. The identification of [[Mars meteorite|certain meteorites]] as having originated on [[Mars]] is based in part upon the isotopic signature of trace gases contained in them.<ref name=Treiman>{{cite journal|author=A. H. Treiman, J. D. Gleason and D. D. Bogard |title=The SNC meteorites are from Mars |journal=[[Planet. Space Sci.]]|volume= 48|page=1213|year=2000| doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(00)00105-7 |bibcode=2000P&SS...48.1213T|issue=12–14}}</ref>
* Isotopic substitution can be used to determine the mechanism of a [[chemical reaction]] via the [[kinetic isotope effect]].
* Another common application is [[isotopic labeling]], the use of unusual isotopes as tracers or markers in chemical reactions. Normally, atoms of a given element are indistinguishable from each other. However, by using isotopes of different masses, even different nonradioactive [[stable isotope]]s can be distinguished by [[mass spectrometry]] or [[infrared spectroscopy]]. For example, in 'stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture ([[SILAC]])' stable isotopes are used to quantify [[protein]]s. If radioactive isotopes are used, they can be detected by the radiation they emit (this is called ''radioisotopic labeling'').
 
=== Use of nuclear properties ===
* A technique similar to radioisotopic labeling is [[radiometric dating]]: using the known [[half-life]] of an unstable element, one can calculate the amount of time that has elapsed since a known level of isotope existed. The most widely known example is [[radiocarbon dating]] used to determine the age of carbonaceous materials.
* Several forms of spectroscopy rely on the unique nuclear properties of specific isotopes, both radioactive and stable. For example, [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) spectroscopy can be used only for isotopes with a nonzero nuclear spin. The most common isotopes used with NMR spectroscopy are <sup>1</sup>H, <sup>2</sup>D,<sup>15</sup>N, <sup>13</sup>C, and <sup>31</sup>P.
* [[Mössbauer spectroscopy]] also relies on the nuclear transitions of specific isotopes, such as <sup>57</sup>Fe.
* [[Radionuclide]]s also have important uses. [[Nuclear power]] and [[nuclear weapon]]s development require relatively large quantities of specific isotopes. [[Nuclear medicine]] and [[radiation oncology]] utilize radioisotopes respectively for medical diagnosis and treatment.
 
==See also==
*[[Abundance of the chemical elements]]
*[[Atom]]
*[[Table of nuclides]]
*[[Table of nuclides (complete)]]
*[[List of isotopes]]
*[[List of isotopes by half-life]]
*[[List of elements by stability of isotopes]]
*[[Isotone]]s
*[[Isobar (nuclide)|Isobar]]s
*[[Radionuclide]] (or radioisotope)
*[[Nuclear medicine]] (includes medical isotopes)
*[[Isotopomer]]
*[[List of particles]]
*[[Geotraces]]
 
==Notes==
* Isotopes are nuclides having the same number of protons; compare:
** [[Isotone]]s are nuclides having the same number of neutrons. <math>N = A - Z</math>
** [[Isobar (nuclide)|Isobar]]s are nuclides having the same mass number, i.e. sum of protons plus neutrons. <math>A</math>
** [[Nuclear isomer]]s are different excited states of the same type of nucleus. A transition from one isomer to another is accompanied by emission or absorption of a [[gamma ray]], or the process of [[internal conversion]]. Isomers are by definition both isotopic and isobaric. (Not to be confused with chemical [[isomer]]s.)
** [[Isodiapher]]s are nuclides having the same [[neutron excess]], i.e. number of neutrons minus number of protons. <math>D = N - Z</math>
*[[Bainbridge mass spectrometer]]
 
==References==
{{reflist|35em}}
 
==External links==
* [http://www.nucleonica.com/ The Nuclear Science web portal Nucleonica]
* [http://www.nucleonica.com/wiki/index.php?title=Category%3AKNC The Karlsruhe Nuclide Chart]
*[http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/ National Nuclear Data Center] Portal to large repository of free data and analysis programs from NNDC
*[http://isotopes.gov/ National Isotope Development Center] Coordination and management of the production, availability, and distribution of isotopes, and reference information for the isotope community
*[http://science.energy.gov/np/research/idpra/ Isotope Development & Production for Research and Applications (IDPRA)] U.S. Department of Energy program for isotope production and production research and development
*[http://www.IAEA.org International Atomic Energy Agency] Homepage of [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA), an Agency of the [[United Nations]] (UN)
*[http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&ascii=html&isotype=some Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements] Static table, from NIST ([[National Institute of Standards and Technology]])
*[http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ Atomgewichte, Zerfallsenergien und Halbwertszeiten aller Isotope]
*[http://ie.lbl.gov/education/isotopes.htm Exploring the Table of the Isotopes] at the [[LBNL]]
*[http://www.isotope.info/ Current isotope research and information] isotope.info
*[http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/isotopes/ Emergency Preparedness and Response: Radioactive Isotopes] by the CDC ([[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]])
*[http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/ Chart of Nuclides] Interactive Chart of Nuclides (National Nuclear Data Center)
*[http://www.yoix.org/elements.html Interactive Chart of the nuclides, isotopes and Periodic Table]
*[http://www-nds.iaea.org/livechart The LIVEChart of Nuclides – IAEA] with isotope data.
*[http://alsos.wlu.edu/adv_rst.aspx?keyword=isotope&creator=&title=&media=all&genre=all&disc=all&level=all&sortby=relevance&results=10&period=15 Annotated bibliography for isotopes] from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
 
{{Isotope index}}
 
[[Category:Isotopes| ]]
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]

Revision as of 20:03, 2 February 2014

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The three naturally-occurring isotopes of hydrogen. The fact that each isotope has one proton makes them all variants of hydrogen: the identity of the isotope is given by the number of neutrons. From left to right, the isotopes are protium (1H) with zero neutrons, deuterium (2H) with one neutron, and tritium (3H) with two neutrons.

Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element such that, while all isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons in each atom, they differ in neutron number. The term isotope is formed from the Greek roots isos (ἴσος "equal") and topos (τόπος "place"), meaning "the same place". Thus, different isotopes of a single element occupy the same position on the periodic table. The number of protons within the atom's nucleus is called atomic number and is equal to the number of electrons in the neutral (un-ionized) atom. Each atomic number identifies a specific element, but not the isotope; an atom of a given element may have a wide range in its number of neutrons. The number of nucleons (both protons and neutrons) in the nucleus is the atom's mass number, and each isotope of a given element has a different mass number.

For example, carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14 are three isotopes of the element carbon with mass numbers 12, 13 and 14 respectively. The atomic number of carbon is 6, which means that every carbon atom has 6 protons, so that the neutron numbers of these isotopes are 6, 7 and 8 respectively.

Isotope vs. nuclide

Atoms with identical nuclei belong to one nuclide, for example each carbon-13 nucleus is composed of 6 protons and 7 neutrons. The nuclide concept (referring to individual nuclear species) emphasizes nuclear properties over chemical properties, while the isotope concept (grouping all atoms of each element) emphasizes chemical over nuclear. The neutron number has large effects on nuclear properties, but its effect on chemical properties is negligible for most elements. Even in the case of the very lightest elements where the ratio of neutron number to atomic number varies the most between isotopes it usually has only a small effect, although it does matter in some circumstances (for hydrogen, the lightest element, the isotope effect is large enough to strongly affect biology). Since isotope is the older term, it is better known than nuclide, and is still sometimes used in contexts where nuclide might be more appropriate, such as nuclear technology and nuclear medicine.

Notation

An isotope and/or nuclide is specified by the name of the particular element (this indicates the atomic number implicitly) followed by a hyphen and the mass number (e.g. helium-3, helium-4, carbon-12, carbon-14, uranium-235 and uranium-239).[1] When a chemical symbol is used, e.g., "C" for carbon, standard notation (now known as "AZE notation" because A is the mass number, Z the atomic number, and E for element) is to indicate the number of nucleons with a superscript at the upper left of the chemical symbol and to indicate the atomic number with a subscript at the lower left (e.g. Template:Nuclide2, Template:Nuclide2, Template:Nuclide2, Template:Nuclide2, Template:Nuclide2, and Template:Nuclide2, respectively).[2] Since the atomic number is implied by the element symbol, it is common to state only the mass number in the superscript and leave out the atomic number subscript (e.g. Template:SimpleNuclide2, Template:SimpleNuclide2, Template:SimpleNuclide2, Template:SimpleNuclide2, Template:SimpleNuclide2, and Template:SimpleNuclide2, respectively). The letter m is sometimes appended after the mass number to indicate a nuclear isomer, a metastable or energetically-excited nuclear state (rather than the lowest-energy ground state), for example Template:Nuclide2 (tantalum-180m).

Radioactive, primordial, and stable isotopes

Some isotopes are radioactive, and are therefore described as radioisotopes or radionuclides, while others have never been observed to undergo radioactive decay and are described as stable isotopes or stable nuclides. For example, Template:SimpleNuclide2 is a radioactive form of carbon while Template:SimpleNuclide2 and Template:SimpleNuclide2 are stable isotopes. There are about 339 naturally occurring nuclides on Earth,[3] of which 288 are primordial nuclides, meaning that they have existed since the solar system's formation.

Primordial nuclides include 35 nuclides with very long half-lives (over 80 million years) and 254 that are formally considered as "stable nuclides",[3] since they have not been observed to decay. In most cases, for obvious reasons, if an element has stable isotopes, those isotopes predominate in the elemental abundance found on Earth and in the solar system. However, in the cases of three elements (tellurium, indium, and rhenium) the most abundant isotope found in nature is actually one (or two) extremely long lived radioisotope(s) of the element, despite these elements having one or more stable isotopes.

Many apparently "stable" isotopes/nuclides are predicted by theory to be radioactive, with extremely long half-lives (this does not count the possibility of proton decay, which would make all nuclides ultimately unstable). Of the 254 nuclides never observed to decay, only 90 of these (all from the first 40 elements) are stable in theory to all known forms of decay. Element 41 (niobium) is theoretically unstable via spontaneous fission, but this has never been detected. Many other stable nuclides are in theory energetically susceptible to other known forms of decay, such as alpha decay or double beta decay, but no decay products have yet been observed, and so these isotopes are described as "observationally stable". The predicted half-lives for these nuclides often greatly exceed the estimated age of the universe, and in fact there are also 27 known radionuclides (see primordial nuclide) with half-lives longer than the age of the universe.

Adding in the radioactive nuclides that have been created artificially, there are more than 3100 currently known nuclides.[4] These include 905 nuclides that are either stable or have half-lives longer than 60 minutes. See list of nuclides for details.

History

Radioactive isotopes

The existence of isotopes was first suggested in 1913 by the radiochemist Frederick Soddy, based on studies of radioactive decay chains that indicated about 40 different species described as radioelements (i.e. radioactive elements) between uranium and lead, although the periodic table only allowed for 11 elements from uranium to lead.[5][6]

Several attempts to separate these new radioelements chemically had failed.[7] For example, Soddy had shown in 1910 that mesothorium (later shown to be 228Ra), radium (226Ra, the longest-lived isotope), and thorium X (224Ra) are impossible to separate.[8] Attempts to place the radioelements in the periodic table led Soddy and Kazimierz Fajans independently to propose their radioactive displacement law in 1913, to the effect that alpha decay produced an element two places to the left in the periodic table, while beta decay emission produced an element one place to the right.[9] Soddy recognized that emission of an alpha particle followed by two beta particles led to the formation of an element chemically identical to the initial element but with a mass four units lighter and with different radioactive properties.

Soddy proposed that several types of atoms (differing in radioactive properties) could occupy the same place in the table. For example, the alpha-decay of uranium-235 forms thorium-231, while the beta decay of actinium-230 forms thorium-230[7] The term "isotope", Greek for "at the same place", was suggested to Soddy by Margaret Todd, a Scottish physician and family friend, during a conversation in which he explained his ideas to her.[8][10][11][12][13][14]

In the bottom right corner of J. J. Thomson's photographic plate are the separate impact marks for the two isotopes of neon: neon-20 and neon-22.

In 1914 T. W. Richards found variations between the atomic weight of lead from different mineral sources, attributable to variations in isotopic composition due to different radioactive origins.[7][15]

Stable isotopes

The first evidence for multiple isotopes of a stable (non-radioactive) element was found by J. J. Thomson in 1913 as part of his exploration into the composition of canal rays (positive ions).[16][17] Thomson channeled streams of neon ions through a magnetic and an electric field and measured their deflection by placing a photographic plate in their path. Each stream created a glowing patch on the plate at the point it struck. Thomson observed two separate patches of light on the photographic plate (see image), which suggested two different parabolas of deflection. Thomson eventually concluded that some of the atoms in the neon gas were of higher mass than the rest.

F. W. Aston subsequently discovered multiple stable isotopes for numerous elements using a mass spectrograph. In 1919 Aston studied neon with sufficient resolution to show that the two isotopic masses are very close to the integers 20 and 22, and that neither is equal to the known molar mass (20.2) of neon gas. This is an example of Aston's whole number rule for isotopic masses, which states that large deviations of elemental molar masses from integers are primarily due to the fact that the element is a mixture of isotopes. Aston similarly showed that the molar mass of chlorine (35.45) is a weighted average of the almost integral masses for the two isotopes Cl-35 and Cl-37.[18]

Variation in properties between isotopes

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Chemical and molecular properties

A neutral atom has the same number of electrons as protons. Thus, different isotopes of a given element all have the same number of protons and share a similar electronic structure. Because the chemical behavior of an atom is largely determined by its electronic structure, different isotopes exhibit nearly identical chemical behavior. The main exception to this is the kinetic isotope effect: due to their larger masses, heavier isotopes tend to react somewhat more slowly than lighter isotopes of the same element. This is most pronounced for protium (Template:SimpleNuclide2) and deuterium (Template:SimpleNuclide2), because deuterium has twice the mass of protium. The mass effect between deuterium and the relatively light protium also affects the behavior of their respective chemical bonds, by means of changing the center of gravity (reduced mass) of the atomic systems. However, for heavier elements, which have more neutrons than lighter elements, the ratio of the nuclear mass to the collective electronic mass is far greater, and the relative mass difference between isotopes is much less. For these two reasons, the mass-difference effects on chemistry are usually negligible.

Isotope half-lives. Note that the plot for stable isotopes diverges from the line Z = N as the element number Z becomes larger

In similar manner, two molecules that differ only in the isotopic nature of their atoms (isotopologues) will have identical electronic structure and therefore almost indistinguishable physical and chemical properties (again with deuterium providing the primary exception to this rule). The vibrational modes of a molecule are determined by its shape and by the masses of its constituent atoms. As a consequence, isotopologues will have different sets of vibrational modes. Since vibrational modes allow a molecule to absorb photons of corresponding energies, isotopologues have different optical properties in the infrared range.

Nuclear properties and stability

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In 12 months 2013, c ommercial retails, shoebox residences and mass market properties continued to be the celebrities of the property market. Models are snapped up in report time and at document breaking prices. Builders are having fun with overwhelming demand and patrons need more. We feel that these segments of the property market are booming is a repercussion of the property cooling measures no.6 and no. 7. With additional buyer's stamp responsibility imposed on residential properties, buyers change their focus to commercial and industrial properties. I imagine every property purchasers need their property funding to understand in value. Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons bound together by the residual strong force. Because protons are positively charged, they repel each other. Neutrons, which are electrically neutral, stabilize the nucleus in two ways. Their copresence pushes protons slightly apart, reducing the electrostatic repulsion between the protons, and they exert the attractive nuclear force on each other and on protons. For this reason, one or more neutrons are necessary for two or more protons to be bound into a nucleus. As the number of protons increases, so does the ratio of neutrons to protons necessary to ensure a stable nucleus (see graph at right). For example, although the neutron:proton ratio of Template:Nuclide2 is 1:2, the neutron:proton ratio of Template:Nuclide2 is greater than 3:2. A number of lighter elements have stable nuclides with the ratio 1:1 (Z = N). The nuclide Template:Nuclide2 (calcium-40) is observationally the heaviest stable nuclide with the same number of neutrons and protons; (theoretically, the heaviest stable one is sulfur-32). All stable nuclides heavier than calcium-40 contain more neutrons than protons.

Numbers of isotopes per element

Of the 80 elements with a stable isotope, the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten (for the element tin). No element has nine stable isotopes. Xenon is the only element with eight stable isotopes. Four elements have seven stable isotopes, eight have six stable isotopes, ten have five stable isotopes, nine have four stable isotopes, five have three stable isotopes, 16 have two stable isotopes (counting Template:Nuclide2 as stable), and 26 elements have only a single stable isotope (of these, 19 are so-called mononuclidic elements, having a single primordial stable isotope that dominates and fixes the atomic weight of the natural element to high precision; 3 radioactive mononuclidic elements occur as well).[19] In total, there are 254 nuclides that have not been observed to decay. For the 80 elements that have one or more stable isotopes, the average number of stable isotopes is 254/80 = 3.2 isotopes per element.

Even and odd nucleon numbers

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Even/odd Z, N (Hydrogen-1 included as OE)
p,n EE OO EO OE Total
Stable 148 5 53 48 254
Long-lived 22 4 4 5 35
All primordial 170 9 57 53 289

The proton:neutron ratio is not the only factor affecting nuclear stability. It depends also on evenness or oddness of its atomic number Z, neutron number N and, consequently, of their sum, the mass number A. Oddness of both Z and N tends to lower the nuclear binding energy, making odd nuclei, generally, less stable. This remarkable difference of nuclear binding energy between neighbouring nuclei, especially of odd-A isobars, has important consequences: unstable isotopes with a nonoptimal number of neutrons or protons decay by beta decay (including positron decay), electron capture or other exotic means, such as spontaneous fission and cluster decay.

The majority of stable nuclides are even-proton-even-neutron, where all numbers Z, N, and A are even. The odd-A stable nuclides are divided (roughly evenly) into odd-proton-even-neutron, and even-proton-odd-neutron nuclides. Odd-proton-odd-neutron nuclei are the least common.

Even atomic number

The 148 even-proton, even-neutron (EE) nuclides comprise ~ 58% of all stable nuclides and all have spin 0 because of pairing. There are also 22 primordial long-lived even-even nuclides. As a result, each of the 41 even-numbered elements from 2 to 82 has at least one stable isotope, and most of these elements have several primordial isotopes. Half of these even-numbered elements have six or more stable isotopes. The extreme stability of helium-4 due to a double pairing of 2 protons and 2 neutrons prevents any nuclides containing five or eight nucleons from existing for long enough to serve as platforms for the buildup of heavier elements via nuclear fusion in stars (see triple alpha process).

Even-odd long-lived
Decay Half-life
Template:Nuclide2 beta 7.7Template:E a
Template:Nuclide2 beta 6.0Template:E a
Template:Nuclide2 beta 1.06Template:E a
Template:Nuclide2 alpha 7.04Template:E a

These 53 stable nuclides have an even number of protons and an odd number of neutrons. They are a minority in comparison to the even-even isotopes, which are about 3 times as numerous. Among the 41 even-Z elements that have a stable nuclide, only three elements (argon, cerium, and lead) have no even-odd stable nuclides. One element (tin) has three. There are 24 elements that have one even-odd nuclide and 13 that have two odd-even nuclides. Of 35 primordial radionuclides there exist four even-odd nuclides (see table at right), including the fissile Template:Nuclide2. Because of their odd neutron numbers, the even-odd nuclides tend to have large neutron capture cross sections, due to the energy that results from neutron-pairing effects. These stable even-proton odd-neutron nuclides tend to be uncommon by abundance in nature, generally because in order to form and be enter into primordial abundance, they must have escaped capturing neutrons to form yet other stable even-even isotopes, during both the s-process and r-process of neutron capture, during nucleosynthesis in stars. For this reason, only Template:Nuclide2 and Template:Nuclide2 are the most naturally abundant isotopes of their element.

Odd atomic number

48 stable odd-proton-even-neutron nuclides, stabilized by their even numbers of paired neutrons, form most of the stable isotopes of the odd-numbered elements; the very few odd-odd nuclides comprise the others. There are 41 odd-numbered elements with Z = 1 through 81, with 39 of these having any stable isotopes (the elements technetium (Template:PhysicsParticle) and promethium (Template:PhysicsParticle) have no stable isotopes). Of these 39 odd Z elements, 30 elements (including hydrogen-1 where 0 neutrons is even) have one stable odd-even isotope, and nine elements: chlorine (Template:PhysicsParticle), potassium (Template:PhysicsParticle), copper (Template:PhysicsParticle), gallium (Template:PhysicsParticle), bromine (Template:PhysicsParticle), silver (Template:PhysicsParticle), antimony (Template:PhysicsParticle), iridium (Template:PhysicsParticle), and thallium (Template:PhysicsParticle), have two odd-even stable isotopes each. This makes a total 30 + 2(9) = 48 stable odd-even isotopes.

There are also five primordial long-lived radioactive odd-even isotopes, Template:Nuclide2, Template:Nuclide2, Template:Nuclide2, Template:Nuclide2, and Template:Nuclide2. The last two were only recently found to decay, with half-lives greater than 1018 years.

Only five stable nuclides contain both an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons. The first four "odd-odd" nuclides occur in low mass nuclides, for which changing a proton to a neutron or vice versa would lead to a very lopsided proton-neutron ratio (Template:Nuclide2, Template:Nuclide2, Template:Nuclide2, and Template:Nuclide2; spins 1, 1, 3, 1). The only other entirely "stable" odd-odd nuclide is Template:Nuclide2 (spin 9), the only primordial nuclear isomer, which has not yet been observed to decay despite experimental attempts.[20] Hence, all observationally stable odd-odd nuclides have nonzero integer spin. This is because the single unpaired neutron and unpaired proton have a larger nuclear force attraction to each other if their spins are aligned (producing a total spin of at least 1 unit), instead of anti-aligned. See deuterium for the simplest case of this nuclear behavior.

Many odd-odd radionuclides (like tantalum-180) with comparatively short half lives are known. Usually, they beta-decay to their nearby even-even isobars that have paired protons and paired neutrons. Of the nine primordial odd-odd nuclides (five stable and four radioactive with long half lives), only Template:Nuclide2 is the most common isotope of a common element. This is the case because it is a part of the CNO cycle. The nuclides Template:Nuclide2 and Template:Nuclide are minority isotopes of elements that are themselves rare compared to other light elements, while the other six isotopes make up only a tiny percentage of the natural abundance of their elements. For example, Template:Nuclide2 is thought to be the rarest of the 254 stable isotopes.

Odd neutron number

Neutron number parity (1H with 0 neutrons included as even)
N Even Odd
Stable 196 58
Long-lived 27 8
All primordial 223 66

Actinides with odd neutron number are generally fissile (with thermal neutrons), while those with even neutron number are generally not, though they are fissionable with fast neutrons. Only Template:Nuclide2, Template:Nuclide2 and Template:Nuclide2 have odd neutron number and are the most naturally abundant isotope of their element.

Occurrence in nature

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In 12 months 2013, c ommercial retails, shoebox residences and mass market properties continued to be the celebrities of the property market. Models are snapped up in report time and at document breaking prices. Builders are having fun with overwhelming demand and patrons need more. We feel that these segments of the property market are booming is a repercussion of the property cooling measures no.6 and no. 7. With additional buyer's stamp responsibility imposed on residential properties, buyers change their focus to commercial and industrial properties. I imagine every property purchasers need their property funding to understand in value. Elements are composed of one or more naturally occurring isotopes. The unstable (radioactive) isotopes are either primordial or postprimordial. Primordial isotopes were a product of stellar nucleosynthesis or another type of nucleosynthesis such as cosmic ray spallation, and have persisted down to the present because their rate of decay is so slow (e.g., uranium-238 and potassium-40). Postprimordial isotopes were created by cosmic ray bombardment as cosmogenic nuclides (e.g., tritium, carbon-14), or by the decay of a radioactive primordial isotope to a radioactive radiogenic nuclide daughter (e.g., uranium to radium). A few isotopes also continue to be naturally synthesized as nucleogenic nuclides, by some other natural nuclear reaction, such as when neutrons from natural nuclear fission are absorbed by another atom.

As discussed above, only 80 elements have any stable isotopes, and 26 of these have only one stable isotope. Thus, about two thirds of stable elements occur naturally on Earth in multiple stable isotopes, with the largest number of stable isotopes for an element being ten, for tin (Template:PhysicsParticle). There are about 94 elements found naturally on Earth (up to plutonium inclusive), though some are detected only in very tiny amounts, such as plutonium-244. Scientists estimate that the elements that occur naturally on Earth (some only as radioisotopes) occur as 339 isotopes (nuclides) in total.[21] Only 254 of these naturally occurring isotopes are stable in the sense of never having been observed to decay as of the present time. An additional 35 primordial nuclides (to a total of 289 primordial nuclides), are radioactive with known half-lives, but have half-lives longer than 80 million years, allowing them to exist from the beginning of the solar system. See list of nuclides for details.

All the known stable isotopes occur naturally on Earth; the other naturally occurring-isotopes are radioactive but occur on Earth due to their relatively long half-lives, or else due to other means of ongoing natural production. These include the afore-mentioned cosmogenic nuclides, the nucleogenic nuclides, and any radiogenic radioisotopes formed by ongoing decay of a primordial radioactive isotope, such as radon and radium from uranium.

An additional ~3000 radioactive isotopes not found in nature have been created in nuclear reactors and in particle accelerators. Many short-lived isotopes not found naturally on Earth have also been observed by spectroscopic analysis, being naturally created in stars or supernovae. An example is aluminium-26, which is not naturally found on Earth, but which is found in abundance on an astronomical scale.

The tabulated atomic masses of elements are averages that account for the presence of multiple isotopes with different masses. Before the discovery of isotopes, empirically determined noninteger values of atomic mass confounded scientists. For example, a sample of chlorine contains 75.8% chlorine-35 and 24.2% chlorine-37, giving an average atomic mass of 35.5 atomic mass units.

According to generally accepted cosmology theory, only isotopes of hydrogen and helium, traces of some isotopes of lithium and beryllium, and perhaps some boron, were created at the Big Bang, while all other isotopes were synthesized later, in stars and supernovae, and in interactions between energetic particles such as cosmic rays, and previously produced isotopes. (See nucleosynthesis for details of the various processes thought to be responsible for isotope production.) The respective abundances of isotopes on Earth result from the quantities formed by these processes, their spread through the galaxy, and the rates of decay for isotopes that are unstable. After the initial coalescence of the solar system, isotopes were redistributed according to mass, and the isotopic composition of elements varies slightly from planet to planet. This sometimes makes it possible to trace the origin of meteorites.

Atomic mass of isotopes

The atomic mass (mr) of an isotope is determined mainly by its mass number (i.e. number of nucleons in its nucleus). Small corrections are due to the binding energy of the nucleus (see mass defect), the slight difference in mass between proton and neutron, and the mass of the electrons associated with the atom, the latter because the electron:nucleon ratio differs among isotopes.

The mass number is a dimensionless quantity. The atomic mass, on the other hand, is measured using the atomic mass unit based on the mass of the carbon-12 atom. It is denoted with symbols "u" (for unified atomic mass unit) or "Da" (for dalton).

The atomic masses of naturally occurring isotopes of an element determine the atomic mass of the element. When the element contains N isotopes, the expression below is applied for the average atomic mass :

where m1, m2, ..., mN are the atomic masses of each individual isotope, and x1, ..., xN are the relative abundances of these isotopes.

Applications of isotopes

Purification of isotopes

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Several applications exist that capitalize on properties of the various isotopes of a given element. Isotope separation is a significant technological challenge, particularly with heavy elements such as uranium or plutonium. Lighter elements such as lithium, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are commonly separated by gas diffusion of their compounds such as CO and NO. The separation of hydrogen and deuterium is unusual since it is based on chemical rather than physical properties, for example in the Girdler sulfide process. Uranium isotopes have been separated in bulk by gas diffusion, gas centrifugation, laser ionization separation, and (in the Manhattan Project) by a type of production mass spectrometry.

Use of chemical and biological properties

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  • Isotope analysis is the determination of isotopic signature, the relative abundances of isotopes of a given element in a particular sample. For biogenic substances in particular, significant variations of isotopes of C, N and O can occur. Analysis of such variations has a wide range of applications, such as the detection of adulteration in food products[22] or the geographic origins of products using isoscapes. The identification of certain meteorites as having originated on Mars is based in part upon the isotopic signature of trace gases contained in them.[23]
  • Isotopic substitution can be used to determine the mechanism of a chemical reaction via the kinetic isotope effect.
  • Another common application is isotopic labeling, the use of unusual isotopes as tracers or markers in chemical reactions. Normally, atoms of a given element are indistinguishable from each other. However, by using isotopes of different masses, even different nonradioactive stable isotopes can be distinguished by mass spectrometry or infrared spectroscopy. For example, in 'stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture (SILAC)' stable isotopes are used to quantify proteins. If radioactive isotopes are used, they can be detected by the radiation they emit (this is called radioisotopic labeling).

Use of nuclear properties

  • A technique similar to radioisotopic labeling is radiometric dating: using the known half-life of an unstable element, one can calculate the amount of time that has elapsed since a known level of isotope existed. The most widely known example is radiocarbon dating used to determine the age of carbonaceous materials.
  • Several forms of spectroscopy rely on the unique nuclear properties of specific isotopes, both radioactive and stable. For example, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy can be used only for isotopes with a nonzero nuclear spin. The most common isotopes used with NMR spectroscopy are 1H, 2D,15N, 13C, and 31P.
  • Mössbauer spectroscopy also relies on the nuclear transitions of specific isotopes, such as 57Fe.
  • Radionuclides also have important uses. Nuclear power and nuclear weapons development require relatively large quantities of specific isotopes. Nuclear medicine and radiation oncology utilize radioisotopes respectively for medical diagnosis and treatment.

See also

Notes

References

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External links

Template:Isotope index

  1. ↑ IUPAC (Connelly, N. G.; Damhus, T.; Hartshorn, R. M.; and Hutton, A. T.), Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry – IUPAC Recommendations 2005, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2005; IUPAC (McCleverty, J. A.; and Connelly, N. G.), Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry II. Recommendations 2000, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2001; IUPAC (Leigh, G. J.), Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (recommendations 1990), Blackwell Science, 1990; IUPAC, Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, Second Edition, 1970; probably in the 1958 first edition as well
  2. ↑ This notation seems to have been introduced in the second half of the 1930s. Before that, various notations were used, such as Ne(22) for neon-22 (1934), Ne22 for neon-22 (1935), or even Pb210 for lead-210 (1933).
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Template:Cite web
  4. ↑ Template:Cite web
  5. ↑ Choppin, G.; Liljenzin, J. O. and Rydberg, J.　（1995） Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry (2nd ed.) Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 3–5
  6. ↑ Others had also suggested the possibility of isotopes; e.g.,
    • Strömholm, Daniel and Svedberg, Theodor (1909) "Untersuchungen über die Chemie der radioactiven Grundstoffe II." (Investigations into the chemistry of the radioactive elements, part 2), Zeitschrift für anorganischen Chemie, 63: 197–206; see especially page 206.
    • Alexander Thomas Cameron, Radiochemistry (London, England: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1910), p. 141. (Cameron also anticipated the displacement law.)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Scerri, Eric R. (2007) The Periodic Table Oxford University Press, pp. 176–179 ISBN 0195305736
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  9. ↑ See:
    • Kasimir Fajans (1913) "Über eine Beziehung zwischen der Art einer radioaktiven Umwandlung und dem elektrochemischen Verhalten der betreffenden Radioelemente" (On a relation between the type of radioactive transformation and the electrochemical behavior of the relevant radioactive elements), Physikalische Zeitschrift, 14: 131–136.
    • Soddy announced his "displacement law" in: One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

      In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

      Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

      Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

      A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

      The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

      There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang.
    • Soddy elaborated his displacement law in: Soddy, Frederick (1913) "Radioactivity," Chemical Society Annual Report, 10: 262–288.
    • Alexander Smith Russell (1888–1972) also published a displacement law: Russell, Alexander S. (1913) "The periodic system and the radio-elements," Chemical News and Journal of Industrial Science, 107: 49–52.
  10. ↑ Soddy first used the word "isotope" in: One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  11. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  12. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  13. ↑ Scerri, Eric R. (2007) The Periodic Table, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195305736, Ch. 6, note 44 (p. 312) citing Alexander Fleck, described as a former student of Soddy's.
  14. ↑ In his 1893 book, William T. Preyer also used the word "isotope" to denote similarities among elements. From p. 9 of William T. Preyer, Das genetische System der chemischen Elemente [The genetic system of the chemical elements] (Berlin, Germany: R. Friedländer & Sohn, 1893): "Die ersteren habe ich der Kürze wegen isotope Elemente genannt, weil sie in jedem der sieben Stämmme der gleichen Ort, nämlich dieselbe Stuffe, einnehmen." (For the sake of brevity, I have named the former "isotopic" elements, because they occupy the same place in each of the seven families [i.e., columns of the periodic table], namely the same step [i.e., row of the periodic table]. [In other words, each element in a given row of the periodic table has chemical properties that are similar ("isotopic") to those of the other elements in the same column of the periodic table.])
  15. ↑ The origins of the conceptions of isotopes Frederick Soddy, Nobel prize lecture
  16. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  17. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  18. ↑ Mass spectra and isotopes Francis W. Aston, Nobel prize lecture 1922
  19. ↑ Template:Cite web
  20. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  21. ↑ Template:Cite web
  22. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  23. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
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