formulasearchengine - User contributions [en]

LyX

2014-01-26T11:45:53Z

176.117.141.76:

[[File:BIsAPseudovector.svg|thumb|right|A loop of wire (black), carrying a [[electric current|current]], creates a [[magnetic field]] (blue). If the position and current of the wire are reflected across the dotted line, the magnetic field it generates would ''not'' be reflected: Instead, it would be reflected ''and reversed''. The position of the wire and its current are vectors, but the magnetic field is a pseudovector.<ref name=Tischchenko>

{{cite book |page=343 |title=Linearity and the mathematics of several variables |author=Stephen A. Fulling, Michael N. Sinyakov, Sergei V. Tischchenko |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Eo3mcd_62DsC&pg=RA1-PA343&dq=pseudovector+%22magnetic+field%22&cd=1#v=onepage&q=pseudovector%20%22magnetic%20field%22&f=false
|isbn=981-02-4196-8 |year=2000 |publisher=World Scientific}}

</ref>]]
In [[physics]] and [[mathematics]], a '''pseudovector''' (or '''axial vector''') is a quantity that transforms like a [[vector (geometry)|vector]] under a proper [[Rotation (mathematics)|rotation]], but in three dimensions gains an additional sign flip under an [[improper rotation]] such as a [[reflection (mathematics)|reflection]]. Geometrically it is the opposite, of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction, of its [[mirror image]]. This is as opposed to a ''true'' or ''polar'' vector, which on reflection matches its mirror image.

In three dimensions the pseudovector '''p''' is associated with the [[cross product]] of two polar vectors '''a''' and '''b''':<ref name=Tarapov>
{{cite book |title=Vector and tensor analysis with applications |author=Aleksandr Ivanovich Borisenko, Ivan Evgenʹevich Tarapov |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CRIjIx2ac6AC&pg=PA125&dq=%22C+is+a+pseudovector.+Note+that%22&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22C%20is%20a%20pseudovector.%20Note%20that%22&f=false |page=125 |isbn=0-486-63833-2 |year=1979 |edition=Reprint of 1968 Prentice-Hall |publisher=Courier Dover}}
</ref>

:<math>\mathbf{p} = \mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b}.\,</math>

The vector '''p''' calculated this way is a pseudovector. One example is the normal to an oriented [[plane (geometry)|plane]]. An oriented plane can be defined by two non-parallel vectors, '''a''' and '''b''',<ref name=FeynmanLectures>
[http://student.fizika.org/~jsisko/Knjige/Opca%20Fizika/Feynman%20Lectures%20on%20Physics/Vol%201%20Ch%2052%20-%20Symmetry%20in%20Physical%20Laws.pdf RP Feynman: §52-5 Polar and axial vectors] from Chapter 52: Symmetry and physical laws, in: Feynman Lectures in Physics, Vol. 1
</ref> which can be said to span the plane. The vector {{nowrap|'''a''' × '''b'''}} is a normal to the plane (there are two normals, one on each side – the [[right-hand rule]] will determine which), and is a pseudovector. This has consequences in computer graphics where it has to be considered when [[Surface normal#Transforming normals|transforming surface normals]].

A number of quantities in physics behave as pseudovectors rather than polar vectors, including [[magnetic field]] and [[angular velocity]]. In mathematics pseudovectors are equivalent to three dimensional [[bivector]]s, from which the transformation rules of pseudovectors can be derived. More generally in ''n''-dimensional [[geometric algebra]] pseudovectors are the elements of the algebra with dimension {{nowrap|''n'' − 1}}, written Λ''n''−1'''R'''''n''. The label 'pseudo' can be further generalized to [[pseudoscalar]]s and [[pseudotensor]]s, both of which gain an extra sign flip under improper rotations compared to a true [[scalar (mathematics)|scalar]] or [[tensor]].

==Physical examples==
Physical examples of pseudovectors include the [[magnetic field]], [[torque]], [[vorticity]], and the [[angular momentum]].

[[Image:Impulsmoment van autowiel onder inversie.svg|thumb| Each wheel of a car driving away from an observer has an angular momentum pseudovector pointing left. The same is true for the mirror image of the car.]]

Consider the pseudovector [[angular momentum]] {{nowrap|1='''L''' = '''r''' × '''p'''}}. Driving in a car, and looking forward, each of the wheels has an angular momentum vector pointing to the left. If the world is reflected in a mirror which switches the left and right side of the car, the "reflection" of this angular momentum "vector" (viewed as an ordinary vector) points to the right, but the ''actual'' angular momentum vector of the wheel (which is still turning forward in the reflection) still points to the left, corresponding to the extra minus sign in the reflection of a pseudovector.

The distinction between vectors and pseudovectors becomes important in understanding [[Symmetry in physics|the effect of symmetry on the solution to physical systems]]. Consider an electrical current loop in the {{nowrap|1=''z'' = 0}} plane that inside the loop generates a magnetic field oriented in the ''z'' direction. This system is [[symmetric]] (invariant) under mirror reflections through this plane, with the magnetic field unchanged by the reflection. But reflecting the magnetic field as a vector through that plane would be expected to reverse it; this expectation is corrected by realizing that the magnetic field is a pseudovector, with the extra sign flip leaving it unchanged.

==Details==
{{see also|Covariance and contravariance of vectors|Euclidean vector}}

The definition of a "vector" in physics (including both polar vectors and pseudovectors) is more specific than the mathematical definition of "vector" (namely, any element of an abstract [[vector space]]). Under the physics definition, a "vector" is required to have [[tuple|components]] that "transform" in a certain way under a [[rotation (mathematics)|proper rotation]]: In particular, if everything in the universe were rotated, the vector would rotate in exactly the same way. (The coordinate system is fixed in this discussion; in other words this is the perspective of [[active and passive transformation|active transformations]].) Mathematically, if everything in the universe undergoes a rotation described by a [[rotation matrix]] ''R'', so that a [[displacement vector]] '''x''' is transformed to {{nowrap|1='''x'''′ = ''R'''''x'''}}, then any "vector" '''v''' must be similarly transformed to {{nowrap|1='''v'''′ = ''R'''''v'''}}. This important requirement is what distinguishes a ''vector'' (which might be composed of, for example, the ''x''-, ''y''-, and ''z''-components of [[velocity]]) from any other triplet of physical quantities (For example, the length, width, and height of a rectangular box ''cannot'' be considered the three components of a vector, since rotating the box does not appropriately transform these three components.)

(In the language of [[differential geometry]], this requirement is equivalent to defining a ''vector'' to be a [[tensor]] of [[Covariance and contravariance of vectors|contravariant]] rank one.)

The discussion so far only relates to proper rotations, i.e. rotations about an axis. However, one can also consider [[improper rotation]]s, i.e. a mirror-reflection possibly followed by a proper rotation. (One example of an improper rotation is [[inversion in a point|inversion]].) Suppose everything in the universe undergoes an improper rotation described by the rotation matrix ''R'', so that a position vector '''x''' is transformed to {{nowrap|1='''x'''′ = ''R'''''x'''}}. If the vector '''v''' is a polar vector, it will be transformed to {{nowrap|1='''v'''′ = ''R'''''v'''}}. If it is a pseudovector, it will be transformed to {{nowrap|1='''v'''′ = −''R'''''v'''}}.

The transformation rules for polar vectors and pseudovectors can be compactly stated as
:<math>\mathbf{v}' = R\mathbf{v}</math> (polar vector)
:<math>\mathbf{v}' = (\det R)(R\mathbf{v})</math> (pseudovector)
where the symbols are as described above, and the rotation matrix ''R'' can be either proper or improper. The symbol det denotes [[determinant]]; this formula works because the determinant of proper and improper rotation matrices are +1 and -1, respectively.

===Behavior under addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication===

Suppose '''v'''1 and '''v'''2 are known pseudovectors, and '''v'''3 is defined to be their sum, {{nowrap|1='''v'''3 = '''v'''1 + '''v'''2}}. If the universe is transformed by a rotation matrix ''R'', then '''v'''3 is transformed to
:<math>\mathbf{v_3}' = \mathbf{v_1}'+\mathbf{v_2}' = (\det R)(R\mathbf{v_1}) + (\det R)(R\mathbf{v_2}) = (\det R)(R(\mathbf{v_1}+\mathbf{v_2}))=(\det R)(R\mathbf{v_3}).</math>
So '''v'''3 is also a pseudovector. Similarly one can show that the difference between two pseudovectors is a pseudovector, that the sum or difference of two polar vectors is a polar vector, that multiplying a polar vector by any real number yields another polar vector, and that multiplying a pseudovector by any real number yields another pseudovector.

On the other hand, suppose '''v'''1 is known to be a polar vector, '''v'''2 is known to be a pseudovector, and '''v'''3 is defined to be their sum, {{nowrap|1='''v'''3 = '''v'''1 + '''v'''2}}. If the universe is transformed by a rotation matrix ''R'', then '''v'''3 is transformed to
:<math>\mathbf{v_3}' = \mathbf{v_1}'+\mathbf{v_2}' = (R\mathbf{v_1}) + (\det R)(R\mathbf{v_2}) = R(\mathbf{v_1}+(\det R) \mathbf{v_2}).</math>
Therefore, '''v'''3 is neither a polar vector nor a pseudovector. For an improper rotation, '''v'''3 does not in general even keep the same magnitude:
:<math>|\mathbf{v_3}| = |\mathbf{v_1}+\mathbf{v_2}|,</math> but <math>|\mathbf{v_3}'| = |\mathbf{v_1}'-\mathbf{v_2}'|</math>.
If the magnitude of '''v'''3 were to describe a measurable physical quantity, that would mean that the laws of physics would not appear the same if the universe was viewed in a mirror. In fact, this is exactly what happens in the [[weak interaction]]: Certain radioactive decays treat "left" and "right" differently, a phenomenon which can be traced to the summation of a polar vector with a pseudovector in the underlying theory. (See [[parity violation]].)

===Behavior under cross products===

[[Image:Uitwendig product onder inversie.svg|thumb|Under inversion the two vectors change sign, but their cross product is invariant [black are the two original vectors, grey are the inverted vectors, and red is their mutual cross product].]]
For a rotation matrix ''R'', either proper or improper, the following mathematical equation is always true:
:<math>(R\mathbf{v_1})\times(R\mathbf{v_2}) = (\det R)(R(\mathbf{v_1}\times\mathbf{v_2}))</math>,
where '''v'''1 and '''v'''2 are any three-dimensional vectors. (This equation can be proven either through a geometric argument or through an algebraic calculation.)

Suppose '''v'''1 and '''v'''2 are known polar vectors, and '''v'''3 is defined to be their cross product, {{nowrap|1='''v'''3 = '''v'''1 × '''v'''2}}. If the universe is transformed by a rotation matrix ''R'', then '''v'''3 is transformed to
:<math>\mathbf{v_3}' = \mathbf{v_1}' \times \mathbf{v_2}' = (R\mathbf{v_1}) \times (R\mathbf{v_2}) = (\det R)(R(\mathbf{v_1} \times \mathbf{v_2}))=(\det R)(R\mathbf{v_3}).</math>
So '''v'''3 is a pseudovector. Similarly, one can show:
*polar vector × polar vector = pseudovector
*pseudovector × pseudovector = pseudovector
*polar vector × pseudovector = polar vector
*pseudovector × polar vector = polar vector

===Examples===

From the definition, it is clear that a displacement vector is a polar vector. The velocity vector is a displacement vector (a polar vector) divided by time (a scalar), so is also a polar vector. Likewise, the momentum vector is the velocity vector (a polar vector) times mass (a scalar), so is a polar vector. Angular momentum is the cross product of a displacement (a polar vector) and momentum (a polar vector), and is therefore a pseudovector. Continuing this way, it is straightforward to classify any vector as either a pseudovector or polar vector.

==The right-hand rule==

Above, pseudovectors have been discussed using [[Active and passive transformation|active transformation]]s. An alternate approach, more along the lines of [[Active and passive transformation|passive transformation]]s, is to keep the universe fixed, but switch "[[right-hand rule]]" with "left-hand rule" everywhere in math and physics, including in the definition of the [[cross product]]. Any polar vector (e.g., a translation vector) would be unchanged, but pseudovectors (e.g., the magnetic field vector at a point) would switch signs. Nevertheless, there would be no physical consequences, apart from in the [[parity violation|parity-violating]] phenomena such as certain [[radioactive decay]]s.<ref>See [http://student.fizika.org/~jsisko/Knjige/Opca%20Fizika/Feynman%20Lectures%20on%20Physics/ Feynman Lectures].</ref>

==Geometric algebra==
In [[geometric algebra]] the basic elements are vectors, and these are used to build a hierarchy of elements using the definitions of products in this algebra. In particular, the algebra builds pseudovectors from vectors.

The basic multiplication in the geometric algebra is the [[geometric product]], denoted by simply juxtaposing two vectors as in '''ab'''. This product is expressed as:

:<math> \mathbf {ab} = \mathbf {a \cdot b} +\mathbf {a \wedge b} \ , </math>

where the leading term is the customary vector [[dot product]] and the second term is called the [[wedge product]]. Using the postulates of the algebra, all combinations of dot and wedge products can be evaluated. A terminology to describe the various combinations is provided. For example, a [[Multivector#Geometric algebra|multivector]] is a summation of ''k''-fold wedge products of various ''k''-values. A ''k''-fold wedge product also is referred to as a [[blade (geometry)|''k''-blade]].

In the present context the ''pseudovector'' is one of these combinations. This term is attached to a different mulitvector depending upon the [[dimension]]s of the space (that is, the number of [[linearly independent]] vectors in the space). In three dimensions, the most general 2-blade or [[bivector]] can be expressed as the wedge product of two vectors and is a pseudovector.<ref name=Pezzaglia>
{{cite book |title=Deformations of mathematical structures II |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KfNgBHNUW_cC&pg=PA131 |page=131 ''ff'' |isbn=0-7923-2576-1 |author=William M Pezzaglia Jr.|editor=Julian Ławrynowicz |year=1992 |publisher =Springer |chapter=Clifford algebra derivation of the characteristic hypersurfaces of Maxwell's equations}}
</ref> In four dimensions, however, the pseudovectors are [[multivector|trivectors]].<ref name=DeSabbata>

In four dimensions, such as a [[Dirac algebra]], the pseudovectors are [[multivector|trivectors]]. {{cite book |title=Geometric algebra and applications to physics |author=Venzo De Sabbata, Bidyut Kumar Datta |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AXTQXnws8E8C&pg=PA64&dq=bivector+trivector+pseudovector+%22geometric+algebra%22&cd=1#v=onepage&q=bivector%20trivector%20pseudovector%20%22geometric%20algebra%22&f=false |isbn=1-58488-772-9 |year=2007 |page=64 |publisher=CRC Press}}

</ref> In general, it is a {{nowrap|(''n'' − 1)}}-blade, where ''n'' is the dimension of the space and algebra.<ref name=Baylis01>

{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oaoLbMS3ErwC&pg=PA100&dq=%22pseudovectors+%28grade+n+-+1+elements%29%22&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22pseudovectors%20%28grade%20n%20-%201%20elements%29%22&f=false |page=100 |author=William E Baylis |title=Lectures on Clifford (geometric) algebras and applications |isbn=0-8176-3257-3 |year=2004 |chapter=§4.2.3 Higher-grade multivectors in ''Cℓ''n: Duals |publisher=Birkhäuser}}

</ref> An ''n''-dimensional space has ''n'' basis vectors and also ''n'' basis pseudovectors. Each basis pseudovector is formed from the outer (wedge) product of all but one of the ''n'' basis vectors. For instance, in four dimensions where the basis vectors are taken to be {'''e'''1, '''e'''2, '''e'''3, '''e'''4}, the pseudovectors can be written as: {'''e'''234, '''e'''134, '''e'''124, '''e'''123}.

===Transformations in three dimensions===
The transformation properties of the pseudovector in three dimensions has been compared to that of the [[vector cross product]] by Baylis.<ref name=Baylis>

{{cite book |author=William E Baylis |title=Theoretical methods in the physical sciences: an introduction to problem solving using Maple V |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pEfMq1sxWVEC&pg=PA234 |page=234, see footnote |isbn=0-8176-3715-X |year=1994 |publisher=Birkhäuser}}

</ref> He says: "The terms ''axial vector'' and ''pseudovector'' are often treated as synonymous, but it is quite useful to be able to distinguish a bivector from its dual." To paraphrase Baylis: Given two polar vectors (that is, true vectors) '''a''' and '''b''' in three dimensions, the cross product composed from '''a''' and '''b''' is the vector normal to their plane given by {{nowrap|'''c''' = '''a''' × '''b'''}}. Given a set of right-handed orthonormal [[basis vector]]s {{nowrap|{ '''e'''ℓ }<nowiki/>}}, the cross product is expressed in terms of its components as:

:<math>\mathbf {a} \times \mathbf{b} = (a^2b^3 - a^3b^2) \mathbf {e}_1 + (a^3b^1 - a^1b^3) \mathbf {e}_2 + (a^1b^2 - a^2b^1) \mathbf {e}_3 ,</math>

where superscripts label vector components. On the other hand, the plane of the two vectors is represented by the [[exterior product]] or wedge product, denoted by {{nowrap|'''a''' ∧ '''b'''}}. In this context of geometric algebra, this [[bivector]] is called a pseudovector, and is the ''[[Dual basis|dual]]'' of the cross product.<ref name=Li>

{{cite book |title=Computer algebra and geometric algebra with applications |page=330 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uxofVAQE3LoC&pg=PA330&dq=%22is+termed+the+dual+of+x%22&cd=1#v=onepage&q=%22is%20termed%20the%20dual%20of%20x%22&f=false |author=R Wareham, J Cameron & J Lasenby |chapter=Application of conformal geometric algebra in computer vision and graphics |isbn=3-540-26296-2 |year=2005 |publisher=Springer}} In three dimensions, a dual may be ''right-handed'' or ''left-handed''; see {{cite book |title=Geometric Algebra for Computer Science: An Object-Oriented Approach to Geometry |author= Leo Dorst, Daniel Fontijne, Stephen Mann |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-1-zRTeCXwgC&pg=PA82 |page=82 |chapter=Figure 3.5: Duality of vectors and bivectors in 3-D |isbn=0-12-374942-5|year=2007 |publisher=Morgan Kaufmann |edition=2nd}}

</ref> The ''dual'' of '''e'''1 is introduced as '''e'''23 ≡ '''e'''2'''e'''3 = {{nowrap|'''e'''2 ∧ '''e'''3}}, and so forth. That is, the dual of '''e'''1 is the subspace perpendicular to '''e'''1, namely the subspace spanned by '''e'''2 and '''e'''3. With this understanding,<ref name=Perwass>

{{cite book |title=Geometric Algebra with Applications in Engineering |author=Christian Perwass |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8IOypFqEkPMC&pg=PA17#v=onepage&q=&f=false |page=17 |chapter=§1.5.2 General vectors |isbn=3-540-89067-X |year=2009 |publisher=Springer}}

</ref>

:<math> \mathbf{a} \wedge \mathbf{b} = (a^2b^3 - a^3b^2) \mathbf {e}_{23} + (a^3b^1 - a^1b^3) \mathbf {e}_{31} + (a^1b^2 - a^2b^1) \mathbf {e}_{12} \ . </math>

For details see [[Hodge_dual#Three-dimensional_example|Hodge dual]]. Comparison shows that the cross product and wedge product are related by:

:<math>\mathbf {a} \ \wedge \ \mathbf{b} = \mathit i \ \mathbf {a} \ \times \ \mathbf{b} \ ,</math>

where ''i'' = {{nowrap|'''e'''1 ∧ '''e'''2 ∧ '''e'''3}} is called the ''[[Pseudoscalar_(Clifford_algebra)#Unit_pseudoscalar|unit pseudoscalar]]''.<ref name=Hestenes>
{{cite book |title=New foundations for classical mechanics: Fundamental Theories of Physics |isbn=0-7923-5302-1 |edition=2nd |year=1999 |publisher=Springer |chapter=The vector cross product |authorlink = David Hestenes
|author=David Hestenes |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AlvTCEzSI5wC&pg=PA60 |page=60 }}
</ref><ref name=Datta>

{{cite book |title=Geometric algebra and applications to physics |chapter=The pseudoscalar and imaginary unit |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AXTQXnws8E8C&pg=PA53 |page=53 ''ff'' |author=Venzo De Sabbata, Bidyut Kumar Datta |isbn=1-58488-772-9 |publisher=CRC Press |year=2007}}

</ref> It has the property:<ref name=Sobczyk>

{{cite book |title=Geometric algebra with applications in science and engineering |author=Eduardo Bayro Corrochano, Garret Sobczyk |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GVqz9-_fiLEC&pg=PA126 |page=126 |isbn=0-8176-4199-8 |publisher=Springer |year=2001}}

</ref>

:<math>\mathit{i}^2 = -1 \ . </math>

Using the above relations, it is seen that if the vectors '''a''' and '''b''' are inverted by changing the signs of their components while leaving the basis vectors fixed, both the pseudovector and the cross product are invariant. On the other hand, if the components are fixed and the basis vectors '''e'''ℓ are inverted, then the pseudovector is invariant, but the cross product changes sign. This behavior of cross products is consistent with their definition as vector-like elements that change sign under transformation from a right-handed to a left-handed coordinate system, unlike polar vectors.

===Note on usage===
As an aside, it may be noted that not all authors in the field of geometric algebra use the term pseudovector, and some authors follow the terminology that does not distinguish between the pseudovector and the cross product.<ref name=Jancewicz>

For example, {{cite book |author=Bernard Jancewicz |title=Multivectors and Clifford algebra in electrodynamics |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=seFyL-UWoj4C&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q=&f=false |page=11 |isbn=9971-5-0290-9 |year=1988 |publisher=World Scientific}}

</ref> However, because the cross product does not generalize beyond three dimensions,<ref name=Tischchenko1>

{{cite book |title=Linearity and the mathematics of several variables |author=Stephen A. Fulling, Michael N. Sinyakov, Sergei V. Tischchenko |page=340 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Eo3mcd_62DsC&pg=RA1-PA340 |isbn=981-02-4196-8 |publisher=World Scientific |year=2000}}

</ref> the notion of pseudovector based upon the cross product also cannot be extended to higher dimensions. The pseudovector as the {{nowrap|1=(''n'' – 1)}}-blade of an ''n''-dimensional space is not so restricted.

Another important note is that pseudovectors, despite their name, are "vectors" in the common mathematical sense, i.e. elements of a [[vector space]]. The idea that "a pseudovector is different from a vector" is only true with a different and more specific definition of the term "vector" as discussed above.

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==General references==
<div class="references-small">
* George B. Arfken and Hans J. Weber, ''Mathematical Methods for Physicists'' (Harcourt: San Diego, 2001). (ISBN 0-12-059815-9)
* Chris Doran and Anthony Lasenby, ''Geometric Algebra for Physicists'' (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2007) (ISBN 978-0-521-71595-9)
* [[Richard Feynman]], ''[[Feynman Lectures on Physics]]'', Vol. 1 Chap. 52. [http://student.fizika.org/~jsisko/Knjige/Opca%20Fizika/Feynman%20Lectures%20on%20Physics/Vol%201%20Ch%2052%20-%20Symmetry%20in%20Physical%20Laws.pdf See §52-5: Polar and axial vectors, p. 52-6]
* [http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Axial_vector ''Axial vector'' at Encyclopaedia of Mathematics]
* [[J. D. Jackson|John David Jackson]], ''Classical Electrodynamics'' (Wiley: New York, 1999). (ISBN 0-471-30932-X)
* Susan M. Lea, "Mathematics for Physicists" (Thompson: Belmont, 2004) (ISBN 0-534-37997-4)
* {{cite book |title=Lectures on Clifford (geometric) algebras and applications |editor=Rafał Abłamowicz, Garret Sobczyk |page=100 ''ff'' |chapter=Chapter 4: Applications of Clifford algebras in physics |author=William E Baylis |isbn=0-8176-3257-3 |publisher=Birkhäuser |year=2004 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oaoLbMS3ErwC&pg=PA100}}: The dual of the wedge product {{nowrap|'''a''' ∧ '''b'''}} is the cross product {{nowrap|'''a''' × '''b'''}}.
</div>

== See also ==
*[[Grassmann algebra]]
*[[Clifford algebra]]
*[[Orientation (mathematics)]] — Description of oriented spaces, necessary for pseudovectors.
*[[Orientability]] — Discussion about non-orientable spaces.

[[Category:Linear algebra]]
[[Category:Vector calculus]]
[[Category:Vectors]]

Singular integral

2013-11-28T15:13:50Z

176.117.141.76: /* Calderón–Zygmund kernels */

In theoretical physics, the '''μ problem''' is a problem of [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric]] theories, concerned with understanding the parameters of the theory.

The supersymmetric [[Higgs]] mass parameter μ appears as the following term in the [[superpotential]]: μHuHd. It is necessary to provide a mass for the fermionic superpartners of the Higgs bosons, i.e. the higgsinos, and it enters as well the scalar potential of the Higgs bosons. To ensure that Hu and Hd get a non-zero [[vacuum expectation value]] after [[electroweak symmetry breaking]], μ should be of the order of magnitude of the [[electroweak scale]], many orders of magnitude smaller than the [[Planck scale]], which is the natural [[cutoff]] scale.

The [[soft supersymmetry breaking]] terms should also be of the same order of magnitude as the electroweak scale. This brings about a problem of [[Naturalness (particle physics)|naturalness]]: why are these scales so much smaller than the cutoff scale? And why, if the soft supersymmetry breaking terms and the μ term in the superpotential have different physical origins, do the corresponding scales happen to fall so close to each other?

One proposed solution, known as the [[Gian Francesco Giudice|Giudice]]-Masiero mechanism,<ref>{{cite journal|author= G. F. Giudice, A. Masiero|title= A Natural Solution to the Mu Problem in Supergravity Theories|journal=Phys. Lett. B|volume= 206|pages=480|year= 1988|doi= 10.1016/0370-2693(88)91613-9}}</ref> is that this term does not appear explicitly in the Lagrangian, because it violates some global symmetry, and can therefore be created only via [[spontaneous symmetry breaking|spontaneous breaking]] of this symmetry. This is proposed to happen together with [[F-term]] [[supersymmetry breaking]], with a spurious field X that parameterizes the hidden supersymmetry-breaking sector of the theory (meaning that FX is the non-zero F-term). Let us assume that the [[Kahler potential]] includes a term of the form
<math> {X \over M_{pl}} H_u H_d</math> times some dimensionless coefficient which is naturally of order one where Mpl is [[Planck mass]]. Then as supersymmetry breaks, FX gets a non-zero vacuum expectation value ⟨FX⟩ and the following effective term is added to the superpotential:
<math> {\langle F_X \rangle \over M_{pl}} H_u H_d</math>, which gives a measured <math>\mu = {\langle F_X \rangle\over M_{pl}}</math>. On the other hand, soft supersymmetry breaking terms are similarly created and also have a natural scale of <math>{\langle F_X \rangle\over M_{pl}}</math>.

==See also==
*[[NMSSM]] (Next-to-Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model)
*[[Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://whepp9.iopb.res.in/talks/DJ_Miller.ppt Supersymmetric Models with extra singlets: a review; DJ Miller, University of Glasgow]

[[Category:Supersymmetry]]
[[Category:Theoretical physics]]

{{physics-stub}}

Gårding's inequality

2013-08-27T19:48:47Z

176.117.141.76: /* Statement of the inequality */

The '''Staudinger Synthesis''' is the [[chemical reaction]] described as an [[acid]]-[[catalysis|catalyzed]] [[rearrangement reaction|rearrangement]] of secondary and tertiary [[propargyl alcohol]]s to α,β-unsaturated [[ketone]]s if the alkyne group is internal and α,β-unsaturated [[aldehyde]]s if the alkyne group is terminal.<ref>Meyer, K. H.; Schuster, K. ''[[Chemische Berichte|Ber.]]'' '''1922''', ''55'', 819.({{DOI|10.1002/cber.19220550403}})</ref> Reviews have been published by Swaminathan and Narayan,<ref name="swaminathan">Swaminathan, S.; Narayan, K. V. "The Rupe and Meyer-Schuster Rearrangements" ''[[Chem. Rev.]]'' '''1971''', ''71'', 429–438. ([http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cr60273a001 Review])</ref> Vartanyan and Banbanyan,<ref>Vartanyan, S. A.; Banbanyan, S. O. ''Russ. Chem. Rev.'' '''1967''', ''36'', 670. ([http://dx.doi.org/10.1070/RC1967v036n09ABEH001681 Review])</ref> and Engel and Dudley,<ref>Engel, D.A.; Dudley, G.B. ''[[Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry]]'' '''2009''', ''7'', 4149–4158. ([http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/b912099h Review])</ref> the last of which describes ways to promote the Meyer–Schuster rearrangement over other reactions available to propargyl alcohols.

[[Image:Meyer-Schuster Rearrangement Scheme.png|center|300px|The Meyer-Schuster rearrangement]]

When catalyzed by base, the reaction is called the [[Favorskii reaction]].

==Mechanism==
[[File:Meyer-schuster-rearrangement.svg|center|600px|Meyer-Schuster Rearrangement]]
The [[reaction mechanism]]<ref>Li, J.J. In ''Meyer-Schuster rearrangement''; Name Reactions: A Collection of Detailed Reaction Mechanisms; Springer: Berlin, 2006; pp 380–381.({{DOI|10.1007/978-3-642-01053-8_159}})</ref> begins with the protonation of the alcohol which leaves in an [[elimination reaction|E1 reaction]] to form the [[allene]] from the [[alkyne]]. Attack of a water molecule on the [[carbocation]] and deprotonation is followed by [[tautomerization]] to give the [[carbonyl#α,β-Unsaturated carbonyl compounds|α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound]].

Edens ''et al.'' have investigated the reaction mechanism.<ref>Edens, M.; Boerner, D.; Chase, C. R.; Nass, D.; Schiavelli, M. D. ''[[J. Org. Chem.]]'' '''1977''', ''42'', 3403–3408. ({{DOI|10.1021/jo00441a017}})</ref> They found it was characterized by three major steps: (1) the rapid protonation of oxygen, (2) the slow, [[rate-determining step]] comprising the [[sigmatropic reaction|1,3-shift]] of the protonated hydroxy group, and (3) the [[keto-enol tautomerism]] followed by rapid deprotonation.

In a study of the rate-limiting step of the Meyer–Schuster reaction, Andres ''et al.'' showed that the driving force of the reaction is the irreversible formation of unsaturated carbonyl compounds through [[carbonium ion]]s.<ref>Andres, J.; Cardenas, R.; Silla, E.; Tapia, O. ''[[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]'' '''1988''', ''110'', 666–674. ({{DOI|10.1021/ja00211a002}})</ref> They also found the reaction to be assisted by the solvent. This was further investigated by Tapia ''et al.'' who showed [[cage effect (chemistry)|solvent caging]] stabilizes the transition state.<ref>Tapia, O.; Lluch, J.M.; Cardena, R.; Andres, J. ''[[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]'' '''1989''', ''111'', 829–835. ({{DOI|10.1021/ja00185a007}})</ref>

==Rupe rearrangement==
The reaction of tertiary alcohols containing an α-[[acetylenic]] group does not produce the expected aldehydes, but rather α,β-unsaturated [[methyl]] ketones via an [[enyne]] [[reaction intermediate|intermediate]].<ref>Rupe, H.; Kambli, E. ''[[Helv. Chim. Acta]]'' '''1926''', ''9'', 672. ({{DOI|10.1002/hlca.19260090185}})</ref><ref>Li, J.J. In ''Rupe rearrangement''; Name Reactions: A Collection of Detailed Reaction Mechanisms; Springer: Berlin, 2006; pp 513–514.({{DOI|10.1007/978-3-642-01053-8_224}})</ref> This reaction competes with the Meyer–Schuster rearrangement in the case of tertiary alcohols.

[[Image:Rupe-rearrangement.svg|center|600px|The Rupe rearrangement]]

==Use of catalysts==
While the traditional Meyer–Schuster rearrangement uses harsh conditions with a strong acid as the catalyst, this introduces competition with the Rupe reaction if the alcohol is tertiary.<ref name="swaminathan"/> Milder conditions have been used successfully with [[transition metal]]-based and [[Lewis acid]] catalysts (for example, Ru-<ref>Cadierno, V.; Crochet, P.; Gimeno, J. ''[[Synlett]]'' '''2008''', 1105–1124. ({{DOI|10.1055/s-2008-1072593}})</ref> and Ag-based<ref>Sugawara, Y.; Yamada, W.; Yoshida, S.; Ikeno, T.; Yamada, T. ''[[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]'' '''2007''', ''129'', 12902-12903. ({{DOI|10.1021/ja074350y}})</ref> catalysts). Cadierno ''et al.'' report the use of [[microwave chemistry|microwave]]-radiation with InCl<math>_3</math> as a catalyst to give excellent yields with short reaction times and remarkable [[stereoselectivity]].<ref>Cadierno, V.; Francos, J.; Gimeno, J. ''[[Tetrahedron Lett.]]'' '''2009''', ''50'', 4773–4776.({{DOI|10.1016/j.tetlet.2009.06.040}})</ref> An example from their paper is given below:
[[Image:Cadierno-microwave-catalysis.svg|center|Cadierno et al.'s microwave-assisted catalysis]]

==Applications==
The Meyer–Schuster rearrangement has been used in a variety of applications, from the conversion of ω-alkynyl-ω-carbinol [[lactam]]s into enamides using catalytic PTSA<ref>Chihab-Eddine, A.; Daich, A.; Jilale, A.; Decroix, B. ''[[J. Heterocycl. Chem.]]'' '''2000''', ''37'', 1543–1548.({{DOI|10.1002/jhet.5570370622}})</ref> to the synthesis of α,β-unsaturated [[thioester]]s from γ-sulfur substituted propargyl alcohols<ref>Yoshimatsu, M.; Naito, M.; Kawahigashi, M.; Shimizu, H.; Kataoka, T. ''[[J. Org. Chem.]]'' '''1995''', ''60'', 4798–4802.({{DOI|10.1021/jo00120a024}})</ref> to the rearrangement of 3-alkynyl-3-hydroxyl-1''H''-[[isoindole]]s in mildly acidic conditions to give the α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds.<ref>Omar, E.A.; Tu, C.; Wigal, C.T.; Braun, L.L. ''[[J. Heterocycl. Chem.]]'' '''1992''', ''29'', 947–951.({{DOI|10.1002/jhet.5570290445}})</ref> One of the most interesting applications, however, is the synthesis of a part of [[paclitaxel]] in a [[diastereomer]]ically-selective way that leads only to the ''E''-alkene.<ref>Crich, D.; Natarajan, S.; Crich, J.Z. ''[[Tetrahedron]]'' '''1997''', ''53'', 7139–7158.({{DOI|10.1016/S0040-4020(97)00411-0}})</ref>

[[Image:Meyer-schuster-taxol.svg|center|Part of the synthesis of taxol using the Meyer-Schuster rearrangement]]

The step shown above had a 70% yield (91% when the byproduct was converted to the Meyer-Schuster product in another step). The authors used the Meyer–Schuster rearrangement because they wanted to convert a hindered ketone to an alkene without destroying the rest of their molecule.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Meyer-Schuster rearrangement}}
[[Category:Rearrangement reactions]]
[[Category:Name reactions]]