Mean value theorem: Difference between revisions
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{{about|magnetic materials|information about objects and devices that produce a magnetic field|magnet|fields that magnets and currents produce|magnetic field}} | |||
{{other uses of}} | |||
{{redirect|Magnetic}} | |||
[[File:Magnetic quadrupole moment.svg|thumb|240px|A magnetic quadrupole]] | |||
{{electromagnetism|cTopic=[[Magnetostatics]]}} | |||
'''Magnetism''' is a class of physical phenomena that includes forces exerted by [[magnet]]s on other magnets. It has its origin in electric currents and the fundamental [[magnetic moment]]s of elementary particles. These give rise to a [[magnetic field]] that acts on other currents and moments. All materials are influenced to some extent by a magnetic field. The strongest effect is on permanent magnets, which have persistent magnetic moments caused by [[ferromagnetism]]. Most materials do not have permanent moments. Some are attracted to a magnetic field ([[paramagnetism]]); others are repulsed by a magnetic field ([[diamagnetism]]); others have a much more complex relationship with an applied magnetic field ([[spin glass]] behavior and [[antiferromagnetism]]). Substances that are negligibly affected by magnetic fields are known as ''non-magnetic'' substances. They include [[copper]], [[aluminium]], [[gases]], and [[plastic]]. Pure [[oxygen]] exhibits magnetic properties when cooled to a [[liquids|liquid]] state. | |||
The magnetic state (or phase) of a material depends on temperature (and other variables such as pressure and the applied magnetic field) so that a material may exhibit more than one form of magnetism depending on its temperature, etc. | |||
== History == | |||
{{main|History of electromagnetism}} | |||
[[Aristotle]] attributed the first of what could be called a scientific discussion on magnetism to [[Thales]] of [[Miletus]], who lived from about 625 BC to about 545 BC.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/E&M_Hist.html|title= Historical Beginnings of Theories of Electricity and Magnetism|accessdate=2008-04-02 |last= Fowler|first= Michael|year= 1997}}</ref> Around the same time, in [[History of India|ancient India]], the [[Ayurveda|Indian surgeon]], [[Sushruta]], was the first to make use of the magnet for surgical purposes.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Early Evolution of Power Engineering|first=Hugh P.|last=Vowles | |||
|journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]|volume=17|issue=2|year=1932|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|pages=412–420 [419–20]|doi=10.1086/346662}}</ref> There is some evidence that the first use of magnetic materials for its properties predates this, J. B. Carlson suggests that the Olmec might have used hematite as a magnet earlier than 1000BC<ref>J B Carlson, "Lodestone Compass: Chinese or Olmec Primacy?", Science. 1975 Sep 5;189(4205):753-60</ref><ref>John B. Carlson, "Lodestone compass: Chinese or Olmec primacy?". ''Science,'' '''volume 189''', issue 4025, (pages 753-760) (1975) | |||
http://www.bcin.ca/Interface/openbcin.cgi?submit=submit&Chinkey=55582</ref> | |||
In [[History of China#Ancient China|ancient China]], the earliest literary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th-century BC book named after its author, ''The Master of Demon Valley'' (鬼谷子): "The [[lodestone]] makes iron come or it attracts it."<ref>Li Shu-hua, “Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole,” ''Isis'', Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.175</ref> The earliest mention of the attraction of a needle appears in a work composed between AD 20 and 100 (''Louen-heng''): "A lodestone attracts a needle."<ref>Li Shu-hua, “Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole,” ''Isis'', Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.176</ref> The [[History of science and technology in China|Chinese scientist]] [[Shen Kuo]] (1031–1095) was the first person to write of the magnetic needle compass and that it improved the accuracy of navigation by employing the [[astronomical]] concept of [[true north]] ''([[Dream Pool Essays]]'', AD 1088), and by the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone [[compass]] for navigation. They sculpted a directional spoon from lodestone in such a way that the handle of the spoon always pointed south. | |||
[[Alexander Neckam]], by 1187, was the first in [[Europe]] to describe the compass and its use for navigation. In 1269, [[Peter of Maricourt|Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt]] wrote the ''Epistola de magnete'', the first extant treatise describing the properties of magnets. In 1282, the properties of magnets and the dry compass were discussed by Al-Ashraf, a [[Islamic physics|Yemeni physicist]], [[Islamic astronomy|astronomer]], and [[Islamic geography|geographer]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Two Early Arabic Sources On The Magnetic Compass|first=Petra G.|last=Schmidl|journal=Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies|year=1996–1997|volume=1|pages=81–132}}</ref> | |||
[[File:M Faraday Th Phillips oil 1842.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Michael Faraday, 1842]] | |||
In 1600, [[William Gilbert (astronomer)|William Gilbert]] published his ''[[De Magnete|De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure]]'' (''On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth''). In this work he describes many of his experiments with his model earth called the [[terrella]]. From his experiments, he concluded that the [[Earth's magnetic field|Earth]] was itself magnetic and that this was the reason compasses pointed north (previously, some believed that it was the pole star ([[Polaris]]) or a large magnetic island on the north pole that attracted the compass). | |||
An understanding of the relationship between [[electricity]] and magnetism began in 1819 with work by [[Hans Christian Ørsted|Hans Christian Oersted]], a professor at the University of Copenhagen, who discovered more or less by accident that an electric current could influence a compass needle. This landmark experiment is known as Oersted's Experiment. Several other experiments followed, with [[André-Marie Ampère]], who in 1820 discovered that the magnetic field circulating in a closed-path was related to the current flowing through the perimeter of the path; [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]; [[Jean-Baptiste Biot]] and [[Félix Savart]], both of which in 1820 came up with the [[Biot-Savart Law]] giving an equation for the magnetic field from a current-carrying wire; [[Michael Faraday]], who in 1831 found that a time-varying magnetic flux through a loop of wire induced a voltage, and others finding further links between magnetism and electricity. [[James Clerk Maxwell]] synthesized and expanded these insights into [[Maxwell's equations]], unifying electricity, magnetism, and [[optics]] into the field of [[electromagnetism]]. In 1905, [[Einstein]] used these laws in motivating his theory of [[special relativity]],<ref name="Moving">[http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/ A. Einstein: "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"], June 30, 1905.</ref> requiring that the laws held true in all [[inertial reference frame]]s. | |||
Electromagnetism has continued to develop into the 21st century, being incorporated into the more fundamental theories of [[gauge theory]], [[quantum electrodynamics]], [[electroweak theory]], and finally the [[standard model]]. | |||
== Sources of magnetism == | |||
{{see also|Magnetic moment}} | |||
Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources: | |||
# [[Electric current]] (see ''[[electron magnetic dipole moment]]''). | |||
# [[Nuclear magnetic moment]]s of atomic nuclei. These moments are typically thousands of times smaller than the electrons' magnetic moments, so they are negligible in the context of the magnetization of materials. Nuclear magnetic moments are very important in other contexts, particularly in [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) and [[magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI). | |||
Ordinarily, the enormous number of electrons in a material are arranged such that their magnetic moments (both orbital and intrinsic) cancel out. This is due, to some extent, to electrons combining into pairs with opposite intrinsic magnetic moments as a result of the [[Pauli exclusion principle]] (see ''[[electron configuration]]''), or combining into filled [[electron subshell|subshells]] with zero net orbital motion. In both cases, the electron arrangement is so as to exactly cancel the magnetic moments from each electron. Moreover, even when the [[electron configuration]] ''is'' such that there are unpaired electrons and/or non-filled subshells, it is often the case that the various electrons in the solid will contribute magnetic moments that point in different, random directions, so that the material will not be magnetic. | |||
However, sometimes — either spontaneously, or owing to an applied external magnetic field — each of the electron magnetic moments will be, on average, lined up. Then the material can produce a net total magnetic field, which can potentially be quite strong. | |||
The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure, particularly its [[electron configuration]], for the reasons mentioned above, and also on the temperature. At high temperatures, random [[thermal motion]] makes it more difficult for the electrons to maintain alignment. | |||
== Topics == | |||
[[File:Magnetism.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.7|Hierarchy of types of magnetism.<ref name=Meyers1>{{cite book |title=Introductory solid state physics |author=HP Meyers |url=http://books.google.com/?id=Uc1pCo5TrYUC&pg=PA322 |page=362; Figure 11.1 |isbn=0-7484-0660-3 |year=1997 |publisher=CRC Press |edition=2}}</ref>]] | |||
=== Diamagnetism === | |||
{{main|Diamagnetism}} | |||
Diamagnetism appears in all materials, and is the tendency of a material to oppose an applied magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic field. However, in a material with paramagnetic properties (that is, with a tendency to enhance an external magnetic field), the paramagnetic behavior dominates.<ref name=Westbrook> | |||
{{cite book |title=MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) in practice |author=Catherine Westbrook, Carolyn Kaut, Carolyn Kaut-Roth |isbn=0-632-04205-2 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=Qq1SHDtS2G8C&pg=PA217 |page=217 |edition=2|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=1998}} | |||
</ref> Thus, despite its universal occurrence, diamagnetic behavior is observed only in a purely diamagnetic material. In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases, the magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital motions, which can be understood [[classical physics|classically]] as follows: | |||
:When a material is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the nucleus will experience, in addition to their [[Coulomb's law|Coulomb]] attraction to the nucleus, a [[Lorentz force]] from the magnetic field. Depending on which direction the electron is orbiting, this force may increase the [[centripetal force]] on the electrons, pulling them in towards the nucleus, or it may decrease the force, pulling them away from the nucleus. This effect systematically increases the orbital magnetic moments that were aligned opposite the field, and decreases the ones aligned parallel to the field (in accordance with [[Lenz's law]]). This results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an opposite direction to the applied field. | |||
Note that this description is meant only as an [[heuristic]]; a proper understanding requires a [[quantum mechanics|quantum-mechanical]] description. | |||
Note that all materials undergo this orbital response. However, in paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, the diamagnetic effect is overwhelmed by the much stronger effects caused by the unpaired electrons. | |||
=== Paramagnetism === | |||
{{main|Paramagnetism}} | |||
In a paramagnetic material there are ''unpaired electrons'', i.e. [[atomic orbital|atomic]] or [[molecular orbital]]s with exactly one electron in them. While paired electrons are required by the [[Pauli exclusion principle]] to have their intrinsic ('spin') magnetic moments pointing in opposite directions, causing their magnetic fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align its magnetic moment in any direction. When an external magnetic field is applied, these magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the applied field, thus reinforcing it. | |||
=== Ferromagnetism === | |||
[[File:Ferromagneses penzermek 1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|A permanent magnet holding up several coins]] | |||
{{main|Ferromagnetism}} | |||
A ferromagnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired electrons. However, in ''addition'' to the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment's tendency to be parallel to ''an applied field'', there is also in these materials a tendency for these magnetic moments to orient parallel to ''each other'' to maintain a lowered-energy state. Thus, even when the applied field is removed, the electrons in the material maintain a parallel orientation. | |||
Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual temperature, called the [[Curie temperature]], or Curie point, above which it loses its ferromagnetic properties. This is because the thermal tendency to disorder overwhelms the energy-lowering due to ferromagnetic order. | |||
Some well-known ferromagnetic materials that exhibit easily detectable magnetic properties (to form [[magnet]]s) are [[nickel]], [[iron]], [[cobalt]], [[gadolinium]] and their [[alloy]]s. | |||
==== Magnetic domains ==== | |||
[[Image:Ferromag Matl Sketch.JPG|right|thumb|upright=0.7|Magnetic domains in ferromagnetic material.]] | |||
{{main|Magnetic domains}} | |||
The magnetic moment of atoms in a [[Ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] material cause them to behave something like tiny permanent magnets. They stick together and align themselves into small regions of more or less uniform alignment called [[magnetic domains]] or [[Weiss domains]]. Magnetic domains can be observed with a [[magnetic force microscope]] to reveal magnetic domain boundaries that resemble white lines in the sketch. There are many scientific experiments that can physically show magnetic fields. | |||
[[Image:Ferromag Matl Magnetized.JPG|left|thumb|Effect of a magnet on the domains.]]When a domain contains too many molecules, it becomes unstable and divides into two domains aligned in opposite directions so that they stick together more stably as shown at the right. | |||
When exposed to a magnetic field, the domain boundaries move so that the domains aligned with the magnetic field grow and dominate the structure as shown at the left. When the magnetizing field is removed, the domains may not return to an unmagnetized state. This results in the ferromagnetic material's being magnetized, forming a permanent magnet. | |||
When magnetized strongly enough that the prevailing domain overruns all others to result in only one single domain, the material is [[Saturation (magnetic)|magnetically saturated]]. When a magnetized ferromagnetic material is heated to the [[Curie point]] temperature, the molecules are agitated to the point that the magnetic domains lose the organization and the magnetic properties they cause cease. When the material is cooled, this domain alignment structure spontaneously returns, in a manner roughly analogous to how a liquid can [[freezing|freeze]] into a crystalline solid. | |||
=== Antiferromagnetism === | |||
[[Image:Antiferromagnetic ordering.svg|thumb|Antiferromagnetic ordering]] | |||
{{main|Antiferromagnetism}} | |||
In an antiferromagnet, unlike a ferromagnet, there is a tendency for the intrinsic magnetic moments of neighboring valence electrons to point in ''opposite'' directions. When all atoms are arranged in a substance so that each neighbor is 'anti-aligned', the substance is '''antiferromagnetic'''. Antiferromagnets have a zero net magnetic moment, meaning no field is produced by them. Antiferromagnets are less common compared to the other types of behaviors, and are mostly observed at low temperatures. In varying temperatures, antiferromagnets can be seen to exhibit diamagnetic and ferrimagnetic properties. | |||
In some materials, neighboring electrons want to point in opposite directions, but there is no geometrical arrangement in which ''each'' pair of neighbors is anti-aligned. This is called a [[spin glass]], and is an example of [[geometrical frustration]]. | |||
=== Ferrimagnetism === | |||
[[Image:Ferrimagnetic ordering.svg|thumb|Ferrimagnetic ordering]] | |||
{{main|Ferrimagnetism}} | |||
Like ferromagnetism, '''ferrimagnets''' retain their magnetization in the absence of a field. However, like antiferromagnets, neighboring pairs of electron spins like to point in opposite directions. These two properties are not contradictory, because in the optimal geometrical arrangement, there is more magnetic moment from the sublattice of electrons that point in one direction, than from the sublattice that points in the opposite direction. | |||
Most [[Ferrite (magnet)|ferrites]] are ferrimagnetic. The first discovered magnetic substance, [[magnetite]], is a ferrite and was originally believed to be a ferromagnet; [[Louis Néel]] disproved this, however, after discovering ferrimagnetism. | |||
===Superparamagnetism=== | |||
{{Main|Superparamagnetism}} | |||
When a ferromagnet or ferrimagnet is sufficiently small, it acts like a single magnetic spin that is subject to [[Brownian motion]]. Its response to a magnetic field is qualitatively similar to the response of a paramagnet, but much larger. | |||
===Electromagnet=== | |||
An ''[[electromagnet]]'' is a type of [[magnet]] whose magnetism is produced by the flow of electric [[Current (electricity)|current]]. The magnetic field disappears when the current ceases. | |||
[[File:Electromagnet.gif|thumb|left|Electromagnets attracts paper clips when current is applied creating a magnetic field. The electromagnet loses them when current and magnetic field are removed.]] | |||
===Other types of magnetism=== | |||
* [[Molecular magnet]] | |||
* [[Metamagnetism]] | |||
* [[Molecule-based magnet]] | |||
* [[Spin glass]] | |||
== Magnetism, electricity, and special relativity == | |||
{{main|Classical electromagnetism and special relativity}} | |||
As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special relativity, electricity and magnetism are fundamentally interlinked. Both magnetism lacking electricity, and electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with special relativity, due to such effects as [[length contraction]], [[time dilation]], and the fact that the [[magnetic force]] is velocity-dependent. However, when both electricity and magnetism are taken into account, the resulting theory (electromagnetism) is fully consistent with special relativity.<ref name="Moving"/><ref>{{harvnb|Griffiths|1998|loc=chapter 12}}</ref> In particular, a phenomenon that appears purely electric to one observer may be purely magnetic to another, or more generally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are dependent on the frame of reference. Thus, special relativity "mixes" electricity and magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagnetism, analogous to how relativity "mixes" space and time into [[spacetime]]. | |||
== Magnetic fields in a material == | |||
{{See also|Magnetic field#H and B inside and outside of magnetic materials}} | |||
In a vacuum, | |||
:<math>\mathbf{B} \ = \ \mu_0\mathbf{H}, </math> | |||
where {{math|μ<sub>0</sub>}} is the [[vacuum permeability]]. | |||
In a material, | |||
:<math>\mathbf{B} \ = \ \mu_0(\mathbf{H} + \mathbf{M}). \ </math> | |||
The quantity {{math|μ<sub>0</sub>'''M'''}} is called ''magnetic polarization''. | |||
If the field {{math|'''H'''}} is small, the response of the magnetization {{math|'''M'''}} in a [[diamagnet]] or [[paramagnet]] is approximately linear: | |||
:<math> \mathbf{M} = \chi \mathbf{H},</math> | |||
the constant of proportionality being called the magnetic susceptibility. If so, | |||
:<math>\mu_0(\mathbf{H} + \mathbf{M}) \ = \ \mu_0(1+\chi) \mathbf{H} \ = \ \mu_r\mu_0 \mathbf{H} \ = \ \mu \mathbf{H}.</math> | |||
In a hard magnet such as a ferromagnet, {{math|'''M'''}} is not proportional to the field and is generally nonzero even when {{math|'''H'''}} is zero (see [[Remanence]]). | |||
== Magnetic force == | |||
[[Image:Magnet0873.png|thumb|Magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet shown by iron filings on paper]] | |||
{{main|Magnetic field}} | |||
The phenomenon of magnetism is "mediated" by the magnetic field. An electric current or magnetic dipole creates a magnetic field, and that field, in turn, imparts magnetic forces on other particles that are in the fields. | |||
Maxwell's equations, which simplify to the [[Biot-Savart law]] in the case of steady currents, describe the origin and behavior of the fields that govern these forces. Therefore magnetism is seen whenever electrically [[electric charge|charged particles]] are in [[Motion (physics)|motion]]---for example, from movement of electrons in an [[electric current]], or in certain cases from the orbital motion of electrons around an atom's nucleus. They also arise from "intrinsic" [[magnetic dipole]]s arising from quantum-mechanical [[Spin (physics)|spin]]. | |||
The same situations that create magnetic fields — charge moving in a current or in an atom, and intrinsic magnetic dipoles — are also the situations in which a magnetic field has an effect, creating a force. Following is the formula for moving charge; for the forces on an intrinsic dipole, see magnetic dipole. | |||
When a charged particle moves through a [[Magnetic field#B and H|magnetic field]] '''B''', it feels a [[Lorentz force]] '''F''' given by the [[cross product]]:<ref>{{Cite book |first = John David |last = Jackson |author-link=J. D. Jackson |title = Classical electrodynamics |edition = 3rd|location = New York, [NY.] |publisher = [[John Wiley & Sons|Wiley]] | year = 1999 |isbn = 0-471-30932-X |postscript = <!--None-->}}</ref> | |||
: <math>\mathbf{F} = q (\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B})</math> | |||
where | |||
: <math>q</math> is the electric charge of the particle, and | |||
: '''v''' is the [[velocity]] [[Vector (geometric)|vector]] of the particle | |||
Because this is a cross product, the force is [[perpendicular]] to both the motion of the particle and the magnetic field. It follows that the magnetic force does no [[mechanical work|work]] on the particle; it may change the direction of the particle's movement, but it cannot cause it to speed up or slow down. The magnitude of the force is | |||
: <math>F=qvB\sin\theta\,</math> | |||
where <math>\theta</math> is the angle between '''v''' and '''B'''. | |||
One tool for determining the direction of the velocity vector of a moving charge, the magnetic field, and the force exerted is labeling the [[index finger]] "V", the [[middle finger]] "B", and the [[thumb]] "F" with your right hand. When making a gun-like configuration, with the middle finger crossing under the index finger, the fingers represent the velocity vector, magnetic field vector, and force vector, respectively. See also [[right hand rule]]. | |||
== Magnetic dipoles == | |||
{{main|Magnetic dipole}} | |||
A very common source of magnetic field shown in nature is a [[dipole]], with a "[[South pole]]" and a "[[North pole]]", terms dating back to the use of magnets as compasses, interacting with the [[Earth's magnetic field]] to indicate North and South on the [[globe]]. Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet. The Earth's [[North Magnetic Pole]] (currently in the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is physically a south pole, as it attracts the north pole of a compass. | |||
A magnetic field contains [[energy]], and physical systems move toward configurations with lower energy. When diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, a ''magnetic dipole'' tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby lowering the net field strength. When ferromagnetic material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles align to the applied field, thus expanding the domain walls of the magnetic domains. | |||
=== Magnetic monopoles === | |||
{{main|Magnetic monopole}} | |||
Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole — if such a thing exists — would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It would act as an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles would carry "magnetic charge" analogous to electric charge. Despite systematic searches since 1931, {{As of|2010|lc=on}}, they have never been observed, and could very well not exist.<ref>Milton mentions some inconclusive events (p.60) and still concludes that "no evidence at all of magnetic monopoles has survived" (p.3). {{cite journal |last=Milton |first=Kimball A. |title=Theoretical and experimental status of magnetic monopoles |journal=Reports on Progress in Physics |volume=69 |issue=6 |date=June 2006 |pages=1637–1711 |doi=10.1088/0034-4885/69/6/R02 |arxiv=hep-ex/0602040|bibcode = 2006RPPh...69.1637M }}.</ref> | |||
Nevertheless, some [[theoretical physics]] models predict the existence of these [[magnetic monopoles]]. [[Paul Dirac]] observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a certain [[symmetry]], just as [[Quantum electrodynamics|quantum theory]] predicts that individual [[positive charge|positive]] or [[negative charge|negative]] electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable. Using quantum theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain the quantization of electric charge---that is, why the observed [[elementary particles]] carry charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron. | |||
Certain [[grand unified theories]] predict the existence of monopoles which, unlike elementary particles, are [[solitons]] (localized energy packets). The initial results of using these models to estimate the number of monopoles created in the [[big bang]] contradicted cosmological observations — the monopoles would have been so plentiful and massive that they would have long since halted the expansion of the universe. However, the idea of [[Cosmic inflation|inflation]] (for which this problem served as a partial motivation) was successful in solving this problem, creating models in which monopoles existed but were rare enough to be consistent with current observations.<ref>{{cite book |first=Alan|last=Guth|authorlink=Alan Guth|title=The Inflationary Universe: The Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins|isbn=0-201-32840-2|publisher=Perseus|year=1997 |oclc=38941224}}.</ref> | |||
== Quantum-mechanical origin of magnetism == | |||
In principle all kinds of magnetism originate (similar to [[Superconductivity]]) from specific quantum-mechanical phenomena (e.g. [[Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics]], in particular the chapters on [[spin (physics)|spin]] and on the [[Pauli principle]]). | |||
A successful model was developed already in 1927, by [[Walter Heitler]] and [[Fritz London]], who derived quantum-mechanically, how hydrogen molecules are formed from hydrogen atoms, i.e. from the atomic hydrogen orbitals <math> u_A</math> and <math>u_B</math> centered at the nuclei ''A'' and ''B'', see below. That this leads to magnetism, is not at all obvious, but will be explained in the following. | |||
According the Heitler-London theory, so-called two-body molecular <math>\sigma</math>-orbitals are formed, namely the resulting orbital is: | |||
:<math>\psi(\mathbf r_1,\,\,\mathbf r_2)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\,\,\left (u_A(\mathbf r_1)u_B(\mathbf r_2)+u_B(\mathbf r_1)u_A(\mathbf r_2)\right )</math> | |||
Here the last product means that a first electron, '''r'''<sub>1</sub>, is in an atomic hydrogen-orbital centered at the second nucleus, whereas the second electron runs around the first nucleus. This "exchange" phenomenon is an expression for the quantum-mechanical property that particles with identical properties cannot be distinguished. It is specific not only for the formation of [[chemical bond]]s, but as we will see, also for magnetism, i.e. in this connection the term [[exchange interaction]] arises, a term which is essential for the origin of magnetism, and which is stronger, roughly by factors 100 and even by 1000, than the energies arising from the electrodynamic dipole-dipole interaction. | |||
As for the ''spin function'' <math>\chi (s_1,s_2)</math>, which is responsible for the magnetism, we have the already mentioned Pauli's principle, namely that a symmetric orbital (i.e. with the + sign as above) must be multiplied with an antisymmetric spin function (i.e. with a − sign), and ''vice versa''. Thus: | |||
:<math>\chi (s_1,\,\,s_2)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\,\,\left (\alpha (s_1)\beta (s_2)-\beta (s_1)\alpha (s_2)\right )</math>, | |||
I.e., not only <math>u_A</math> and <math>u_B</math> must be substituted by ''α'' and ''β'', respectively (the first entity means "spin up", the second one "spin down"), but also the sign + by the − sign, and finally '''r'''<sub>i</sub> by the discrete values ''s''<sub>i</sub> (= ±½); thereby we have <math>\alpha(+1/2)=\beta(-1/2)=1</math> and <math>\alpha(-1/2)=\beta(+1/2)=0</math>. The "[[singlet state]]", i.e. the − sign, means: the spins are ''antiparallel'', i.e. for the solid we have [[antiferromagnetism]], and for two-atomic molecules one has [[diamagnetism]]. The tendency to form a (homoeopolar) chemical bond (this means: the formation of a ''symmetric'' molecular orbital, i.e. with the + sign) results through the Pauli principle automatically in an ''antisymmetric'' spin state (i.e. with the − sign). In contrast, the Coulomb repulsion of the electrons, i.e. the tendency that they try to avoid each other by this repulsion, would lead to an ''antisymmetric'' orbital function (i.e. with the − sign) of these two particles, and complementary to a ''symmetric'' spin function (i.e. with the + sign, one of the so-called "[[triplet state|triplet functions]]"). Thus, now the spins would be ''parallel'' ([[ferromagnetism]] in a solid, [[paramagnetism]] in two-atomic gases). | |||
The last-mentioned tendency dominates in the metals [[iron]], [[cobalt]] and [[nickel]], and in some rare earths, which are ''ferromagnetic''. Most of the other metals, where the first-mentioned tendency dominates, are ''nonmagnetic'' (e.g. [[sodium]], [[aluminium]], and [[magnesium]]) or ''antiferromagnetic'' (e.g. [[manganese]]). Diatomic gases are also almost exclusively diamagnetic, and not paramagnetic. However, the oxygen molecule, because of the involvement of π-orbitals, is an exception important for the life-sciences. | |||
The Heitler-London considerations can be generalized to the [[Heisenberg model (classical)|Heisenberg model]] of magnetism (Heisenberg 1928). | |||
The explanation of the phenomena is thus essentially based on all subtleties of quantum mechanics, whereas the electrodynamics covers mainly the phenomenology. | |||
== Units of electromagnetism == | |||
===SI units related to magnetism=== | |||
{|class="wikitable" | |||
!colspan="5"|[[SI]] electromagnetism units | |||
|- | |||
!Symbol<ref>{{GreenBookRef2nd|pages=14–15}}</ref> | |||
!Name of Quantity | |||
!Derived Units | |||
!Conversion of International to [[SI base unit]]s | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
:''I'' | |||
|[[Electric current]] | |||
|[[ampere]] ([[SI base unit]]) | |||
|<math>\mathrm{A=C\ s^{-1}}</math> | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
:''q'' | |||
|[[Electric charge]] | |||
|[[coulomb]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{C=A\ s}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>U,\ \Delta V,\ \Delta\phi,\ \Epsilon</math> | |||
|[[Potential difference]]; [[Electromotive force]] | |||
|[[volt]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{V=J\ C^{-1}=kg\ A^{-1}m^2s^{-3}}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>R;\ \Zeta;\ \Chi</math> | |||
|[[Electric resistance]]; [[Electrical impedance|Impedance]]; [[Reactance (electronics)|Reactance]] | |||
|[[Ohm (unit)|ohm]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{\Omega=V\ A^{-1}=kg\ m^{2} \ A^{-2}s^{-3}}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>\ \rho</math> | |||
|[[Resistivity]] | |||
|[[Ohm (unit)|ohm]] [[metre]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{\Omega\ m=kg\ A^{-2}m^3s^{-3}}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>\ \Rho</math> | |||
|[[Electric power]] | |||
|[[watt]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{W=V\ A=kg\ m^2s^{-3}}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>\ C</math> | |||
|[[Capacitance]] | |||
|[[farad]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{F=C\ V^{-1}=A^2kg^{-1}m^{-2}s^4}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>\mathbf{\Epsilon}</math> | |||
|[[Electric field]] strength | |||
|[[volt]] per [[metre]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{V\ m^{-1}=C^{-1}N=kg\ A^{-1}m\ s^{-3}}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>\mathbf{D}</math> | |||
|[[Electric displacement field]] | |||
|[[Coulomb]] per [[square metre]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{C\ m^{-2}=A\ m^{-2}s}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>\varepsilon</math> | |||
|[[Permittivity]] | |||
|[[farad]] per [[metre]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{F\ m^{-1}=A^{2}kg^{-1}m^{-3}s^{4}}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>\!\chi_e</math> | |||
|[[Electric susceptibility]] | |||
|[[Dimensionless quantity|Dimensionless]] | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|<math>\Beta;\ G;\ \Upsilon</math> | |||
|[[Electrical conductance|Conductance]]; [[Admittance]]; [[Susceptance]] | |||
|[[Siemens (unit)|siemens]] | |||
|<math>\ \mathrm{S=\Omega^{-1}=kg^{-1}A^2m^{-2}s^3}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>\gamma,\ \kappa,\ \sigma</math> | |||
|[[Electrical conductivity|Conductivity]] | |||
|[[siemens (unit)|siemens]] per [[metre]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{S\ m^{-1}=A^2kg^{-1}m^{-3}s^3}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>\ \mathbf{B}</math> | |||
|[[Magnetic field|Magnetic flux density, Magnetic induction]] | |||
|[[tesla (unit)|tesla]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{T=Wb\ m^{-2}=kg\ A^{-1}s^{-2}}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>\ \Phi</math> | |||
|[[Magnetic flux]] | |||
|[[weber (unit)|weber]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{Wb=V\ s=kg\ A^{-1}m^2s^{-2}}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>\mathbf{H}</math> | |||
|[[Magnetic field]] strength | |||
|[[ampere]] per [[metre]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{A\ m^{-1}}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>L,\ \Mu</math> | |||
|[[Inductance]] | |||
|[[henry (unit)|henry]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{H=Wb\ A^{-1}=V\ A^{-1}s=kg\ A^{-2}m^2s^{-2}}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>\ \mu</math> | |||
|[[Permeability (electromagnetism)|Permeability]] | |||
|[[henry (unit)|henry]] per [[metre]] | |||
|<math>\mathrm{H m^{-1}=kg\ A^{-2}m\ s^{-2}}</math> | |||
|- | |||
|<math>\ \chi</math> | |||
|[[Magnetic susceptibility]] | |||
|[[Dimensionless quantity|Dimensionless]] | |||
| | |||
|} | |||
=== Other units === | |||
* [[gauss (unit)|gauss]] — The '''gauss''' is the [[centimeter-gram-second]] (CGS) [[units of measurement|unit]] of magnetic field (denoted '''B'''). | |||
* [[oersted]] — The '''oersted''' is the CGS unit of [[Magnetic field#B and H|magnetizing field]] (denoted '''H'''). | |||
* [[maxwell (unit)|maxwell]] — The '''maxwell''' is the CGS unit for [[magnetic flux]]. | |||
* gamma — is a unit of '''''magnetic flux density''''' that was commonly used before the [[tesla (unit)|tesla]] came into use (1.0 gamma = 1.0 nanotesla) | |||
* ''μ''<sub>0</sub> — common symbol for the [[permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] of free space (4π×10<sup>−7</sup> [[newton (unit)|newton]]/([[ampere-turn]])<sup>2</sup>). | |||
== Living things == | |||
Some [[organisms]] can detect magnetic fields, a phenomenon known as [[magnetoception]]. [[Magnetobiology]] studies magnetic fields as a [[medical]] treatment; fields naturally produced by an organism are known as [[biomagnetism]]. | |||
== See also == | |||
<div style="{{column-count|3}}"> | |||
* [[Coercivity]] | |||
* [[Magnetar]] | |||
* [[Magnetic bearing]] | |||
* [[Magnetic circuit]] | |||
* [[Magnetic cooling]] | |||
* [[Magnetic field viewing film]] | |||
* [[Magnetic stirrer]] | |||
* [[Magnetic structure]] | |||
* [[Micromagnetism]] | |||
* [[Neodymium magnet]] | |||
* [[Plastic magnet]] | |||
* [[Rare-earth magnet]] | |||
* [[Spin wave]] | |||
* [[Spontaneous magnetization]] | |||
* [[Vibrating sample magnetometer]] | |||
* [[Gravitomagnetism]] | |||
</div> | |||
== References == | |||
{{Reflist}} | |||
== Further reading == | |||
{{refbegin}} | |||
* {{cite book | author=Furlani, Edward P. | title=Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and Applications | publisher=Academic Press | year=2001 | isbn=0-12-269951-3 | oclc=162129430}} | |||
* {{cite book | last1=Griffiths |first1=David J.|title=Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.)| publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1998 |isbn=0-13-805326-X | oclc=40251748|ref=harv}} | |||
* {{cite book | author=Kronmüller, Helmut.|title=Handbook of Magnetism and Advanced Magnetic Materials, 5 Volume Set| publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2007 |isbn=978-0-470-02217-7 | oclc=124165851}} | |||
* {{cite book | author=Tipler, Paul | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics (5th ed.) | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2004 | isbn=0-7167-0810-8 | oclc=51095685}} | |||
* {{cite book | author=David K. Cheng | title=Field and Wave Electromagnetics | publisher=Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. | year=1992 | isbn=0-201-12819-5 }} | |||
{{refend}} | |||
== External links == | |||
{{Wikibooks|School science}} | |||
{{Wiktionary}} | |||
* {{In Our Time|Magnetism|p003k9dd|Magnetism}} | |||
* [http://www.exploratorium.edu/snacks/iconmagnetism.html The Exploratorium Science Snacks – Snacks about Magnetism] | |||
* [http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html Electromagnetism] - a chapter from an online textbook | |||
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wMFPe-DwULM Video: The physicist Richard Feynman answers the question, Why do bar magnets attract or repel each other?] | |||
* [http://www.antiquebooks.net/readpage.html#gilbert On the Magnet, 1600] First scientific book on magnetism by the father of electrical engineering. Full English text, full text search. | |||
{{magnetic states}} | |||
[[Category:Magnetism| ]] | |||
Revision as of 21:07, 31 January 2014
29 yr old Orthopaedic Surgeon Grippo from Saint-Paul, spends time with interests including model railways, top property developers in singapore developers in singapore and dolls. Finished a cruise ship experience that included passing by Runic Stones and Church.
From my experience and statement, the dimensions of the condominium land performs a giant consider helping assist the asset value of a luxurious apartment over time. After some time they're look the same with small land, one high-rise tower equipped with the most recent brandname fittings and limited automobile park.
Since Ground to Flooring peak is at all times > Flooring to Ceiling heights, some developers prefer to quote the floor to flooring top. Again, we must always examine between developments utilizing ground to ceiling heights. Core Central Region (CCR) > Central (or RCR, Rest of central region) > Remainder of Singapore (or OCR, Outside Central Area) Since students that dwell inside 1km or 2km to a school gets entry precedence to that school, proximity to good faculties adds to the worth of the event. Information to the shopping for process Guide me by way of the process of shopping for accomplished properties (rental/property already built liao). I need to have a minimum of an idea of it! The lawyer's fees don't embrace stamp charges or disbursements correctly incurred bythe lawyer. Promoting Your Home or Flat
One other distinguished actual property developer is Keppel Land Restricted. It contributes to Singapore's skyline with landmark developments such as the Ocean Monetary Centre and Marina Bay Financial Centre within the Central Enterprise District. The company is also Asia's premier dwelling developer with world-class iconic waterfront properties at Keppel Bay and Marina Bay. It has a land financial institution of about a hundred thirty million sq. toes with a pipeline of about 70,000 homes across Asia and the Center East to faucet into the demand for quality housing pushed by residence ownership aspirations.
Philip Ng, who holds degrees in civil and geotechnical engineering in addition to metropolis planning, has over the previous decade or so spruced up the corporate in Singapore and hired many professionals. The group has developed many award-successful buildings. United Abroad Financial institution Group chairman Wee Cho Yaw described Mr Ng as 'an previous pal of more than 50 years' who had 'an intuitive aptitude for reading property cycles'. Even the biggest property corporations in Hong Kong take their hats off to his firm in Hong Kong, where it enjoys a excessive standing,' Mr Liew added. Ng Teng Fong, one in every of Asia's richest tycoons and the founder and chairman of Singapore's largest unlisted property group, Far East Group, died Tuesday aged 82, the developer said. SB Improvement Pte Ltd
Relying whether you might be buying the property for own keep or funding, location performs an important function. Properties in prime districts retain their value very nicely and they usually have the very best property developers in singapore capital achieve in a bullish property market. Properties in the suburbs are lower in value and could also be more suitable for own keep than funding. In case you can buying the property for investment, the properties in prime districts like district 09, 10, eleven or the Central Business District are the most secure purchase. Properties with sea view on the East Coast are also great for a resort residence or investment.
Only Singapore citizens and accredited persons can purchase Landed 'residential property'as outlined within the Residential Properties Act. Foreigners are eligible to purchaseunits in condominiums or residences which aren't landed dwelling homes. Foreignerswho wish to purchase landed property in Singapore should first search the approval ofthe Controller of Residential Property. Your Lawyer's Role in a Property Purchase Pending completion of your buy, your lawyer will lodge a caveat towards the title to the property - this serves to notify the public (and any third occasion fascinated in the property) that you've a legitimate interest or claim to the title of the property arising from the contract for the sale and purchase. Property was all the time on his thoughts Property
The primary week makes or breaks a developer. A perceived excessive take up price within the first week of launch helps gross sales tremendously. Nothing helps gross sales greater than a headline title of "80% of launch property bought over the weekend". That keeps enthusiasm for the mission for the remainder of the week when folks flock to see the show flat subsequently. Ascendas Pte Ltd - This property improvement firm in Singapore presents actual property services that embrace mission management, renovation, estate and property management. Along with this, it also manages non-public real estate funds. What's non-restricted residential property underneath the Residential Property Act Sale and lease of non-residential properties are subject to GST. Financing your Property EC web site attracts S$a hundred and seventy.1m bid
Mr Brooke, for one, expects prices in urban areas to rise 15 per cent within the subsequent two years, while he sees prices in outlying areas taking one other three-four years to get well. - 2002 April sixteen by Audrey Tan Singapore Business Instances Does anyone have any info /expertise of the property market in Singapore? My partner and I want to transfer there soon and have seen a great place we like nonetheless we actually do not know if the market has reached its peak or whether it's imagined to proceed to rise. Keppel Land is Asia's premier house developer with world-class iconic waterfront residences at Keppel Bay and Marina Bay in Singapore. Hedges Park, a brand new condominium by Hong Leong Group with impressive full facilities. Shaw Properties (1997) Pte Ltd Yeo Hiap Seng Limited
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Earlier than you determine whether or not stainless steel cookware is value shopping for, lets first talk about what stainless steel cookware is. Chrome steel is made from an alloy, or a mix of metals. Mostly, fundamental iron with chromium, nickel or some other minor metals. The chromium supplies rust protection and provides your cookware sturdiness. The nickel provides rust safety as effectively, and provides a refined look. Most effectively made chrome steel cookware has copper or aluminum added to the underside of the pan or pot. This is finished to increases the ability of the pot or pan to conduct heat.
One of the best stainless-steel cookware is the principle category, however nonetheless it is divided into several subcategories based mostly on the quality and the price range. It may be confusing to decide on the very best stainless-steel cookware out of the categories that may meet your requirements. That is where we took a step forward to explain you all the knowledge that will likely be helpful so that you can understand how to decide on the best chrome steel cookware. The best stainless-steel cookware set is manufactured from low-cost to expensive and quality constructed pots and pans.
You will find magnetic stainless steel within the layer on the outside of some high quality pieces of stainless-steel. That is to make it compatible with induction stovetops, which involve using a rapidly charging electromagnetic subject to warmth cookware. High-high quality stainless steel, like All-Clad , uses three layers of steel—the austenite layer of metal on the within, ferrite steel on the outside, and a layer of aluminum sandwiched between the two for optimum heat conductivity (metal alone doesn't conduct warmth evenly). Lesser-high quality stainless-steel is usually only one layer of austenitic chrome steel.
Aesthetically talking, chrome steel is a wise alternative when you favor to show or hang pots or pans. The clean, crisp look of all chrome steel kitchenware can remodel a mishmash of cookware into a complicated décor statement. Chrome steel kettles, such because the Cuisinart Tea Kettle will combine individual kitchenware right into a cohesive and nice entity. Take into account buying stainless-steel utensils as well. Already acquired a gorgeous stainless steel cookware assortment? The Cuisinart Chef’s Collection stainless pot rack could be the crowning glory for a kitchen, liberating up space and making these pots and pans readily accessible. Get the stainless-steel cookware of your culinary goals at Macy’s!
Arduous-anodized aluminum cookware is among the most popular forms of material, despite the fact that many people do not fairly perceive the development. Hard-anodized aluminum is plain aluminum that has been processed in a series of chemical baths charged with an electrical present. The result's a fabric that has the same superior warmth conductivity as aluminum however is non-reactive with acidic meals, similar to tomatoes, and twice as hard as chrome steel. Two drawbacks to laborious-anodized cookware are that it's not dishwasher-secure and, because it isn't magnetic, it will not work with induction range tops.
The enamel over metal method creates a piece that has the heat distribution of carbon steel and a non-reactive, low-stick surface. In the event you loved this information and you desire to acquire details about best stainless steel cookware i implore you to pay a visit to our page. Such pots are a lot lighter than most different pots of comparable dimension, are cheaper to make than chrome steel pots, and would not have the rust and reactivity problems with forged iron or carbon steel. quotation needed Enamel over metal is right for large stockpots and for different giant pans used mostly for water-primarily based cooking. Because of its mild weight and simple cleanup, enamel over metal can also be standard for cookware used while tenting. Clad aluminium or copper edit
Unique specialty cookware items served a la carte to compliment any cookware set are constructed of a sturdy Stainless Steel with a brushed exterior finish. Designed with an impression bonded, aluminum disk encapsulated base which distributes warmth quickly and evenly to permit exact temperature management. Handles are riveted for durability and efficiency. The New Specialty Cookware is compatible for all vary sorts together with induction. Along with the multi use function, another unique characteristic is bottom to top interior quantity markings in each quarts and metric measurement; and each bit comes with a tempered glass lid, oven safe to 350°F.
Whether or not you are a cooking enthusiasts, knowledgeable chef or simply cooking for your family you know the importance of getting a totally stocked kitchen. Not solely do you want the fitting elements, but you also need the right instruments to get the job performed. In any sort of fundamental cooking coaching lesson, you will be taught that chrome steel is your new finest pal when it comes to kitchen cookware. What additionally, you will study is that quality cooking tools does not normally come at a reduced price. Because of this, you will need to take good care of your cookware! Listed here are some fundamentals for stainless steel care.
To combat the uneven heating downside, most stainless steel pans are laminations of aluminum or copper on the underside to spread the warmth around, and stainless-steel contained in the pan to provide a cooking floor that's impervious to whatever you might put inside. In my experience, this chrome steel floor continues to be too sticky to fry on, and when you ever burn it you get a permanent hassle spot. But, sometimes a stainless-steel cooking surface turns out to be useful when you can't use aluminum (see below) so I keep some round. Choose one thing with a fairly thick aluminum layer on the underside.
Well, until you’re a metals professional and go examine the factory where the steel is made to see whether or not their manufacturing course of creates a pure austenite without corrosive supplies shaped, you’re not going to know for sure whether or not the craftsmanship of your stainless is of the very best quality. I think your greatest wager is to simply buy high-quality chrome steel from the start, from a brand with a reputation for good quality. But, I believe I have found out one way that you would be able to decide if the stainless cookware you already have is probably reactive.
Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that includes forces exerted by magnets on other magnets. It has its origin in electric currents and the fundamental magnetic moments of elementary particles. These give rise to a magnetic field that acts on other currents and moments. All materials are influenced to some extent by a magnetic field. The strongest effect is on permanent magnets, which have persistent magnetic moments caused by ferromagnetism. Most materials do not have permanent moments. Some are attracted to a magnetic field (paramagnetism); others are repulsed by a magnetic field (diamagnetism); others have a much more complex relationship with an applied magnetic field (spin glass behavior and antiferromagnetism). Substances that are negligibly affected by magnetic fields are known as non-magnetic substances. They include copper, aluminium, gases, and plastic. Pure oxygen exhibits magnetic properties when cooled to a liquid state.
The magnetic state (or phase) of a material depends on temperature (and other variables such as pressure and the applied magnetic field) so that a material may exhibit more than one form of magnetism depending on its temperature, etc.
History
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Aristotle attributed the first of what could be called a scientific discussion on magnetism to Thales of Miletus, who lived from about 625 BC to about 545 BC.[1] Around the same time, in ancient India, the Indian surgeon, Sushruta, was the first to make use of the magnet for surgical purposes.[2] There is some evidence that the first use of magnetic materials for its properties predates this, J. B. Carlson suggests that the Olmec might have used hematite as a magnet earlier than 1000BC[3][4]
In ancient China, the earliest literary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th-century BC book named after its author, The Master of Demon Valley (鬼谷子): "The lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it."[5] The earliest mention of the attraction of a needle appears in a work composed between AD 20 and 100 (Louen-heng): "A lodestone attracts a needle."[6] The Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) was the first person to write of the magnetic needle compass and that it improved the accuracy of navigation by employing the astronomical concept of true north (Dream Pool Essays, AD 1088), and by the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass for navigation. They sculpted a directional spoon from lodestone in such a way that the handle of the spoon always pointed south.
Alexander Neckam, by 1187, was the first in Europe to describe the compass and its use for navigation. In 1269, Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt wrote the Epistola de magnete, the first extant treatise describing the properties of magnets. In 1282, the properties of magnets and the dry compass were discussed by Al-Ashraf, a Yemeni physicist, astronomer, and geographer.[7]

In 1600, William Gilbert published his De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth). In this work he describes many of his experiments with his model earth called the terrella. From his experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and that this was the reason compasses pointed north (previously, some believed that it was the pole star (Polaris) or a large magnetic island on the north pole that attracted the compass).
An understanding of the relationship between electricity and magnetism began in 1819 with work by Hans Christian Oersted, a professor at the University of Copenhagen, who discovered more or less by accident that an electric current could influence a compass needle. This landmark experiment is known as Oersted's Experiment. Several other experiments followed, with André-Marie Ampère, who in 1820 discovered that the magnetic field circulating in a closed-path was related to the current flowing through the perimeter of the path; Carl Friedrich Gauss; Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart, both of which in 1820 came up with the Biot-Savart Law giving an equation for the magnetic field from a current-carrying wire; Michael Faraday, who in 1831 found that a time-varying magnetic flux through a loop of wire induced a voltage, and others finding further links between magnetism and electricity. James Clerk Maxwell synthesized and expanded these insights into Maxwell's equations, unifying electricity, magnetism, and optics into the field of electromagnetism. In 1905, Einstein used these laws in motivating his theory of special relativity,[8] requiring that the laws held true in all inertial reference frames.
Electromagnetism has continued to develop into the 21st century, being incorporated into the more fundamental theories of gauge theory, quantum electrodynamics, electroweak theory, and finally the standard model.
Sources of magnetism
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Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources:
- Electric current (see electron magnetic dipole moment).
- Nuclear magnetic moments of atomic nuclei. These moments are typically thousands of times smaller than the electrons' magnetic moments, so they are negligible in the context of the magnetization of materials. Nuclear magnetic moments are very important in other contexts, particularly in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
Ordinarily, the enormous number of electrons in a material are arranged such that their magnetic moments (both orbital and intrinsic) cancel out. This is due, to some extent, to electrons combining into pairs with opposite intrinsic magnetic moments as a result of the Pauli exclusion principle (see electron configuration), or combining into filled subshells with zero net orbital motion. In both cases, the electron arrangement is so as to exactly cancel the magnetic moments from each electron. Moreover, even when the electron configuration is such that there are unpaired electrons and/or non-filled subshells, it is often the case that the various electrons in the solid will contribute magnetic moments that point in different, random directions, so that the material will not be magnetic.
However, sometimes — either spontaneously, or owing to an applied external magnetic field — each of the electron magnetic moments will be, on average, lined up. Then the material can produce a net total magnetic field, which can potentially be quite strong.
The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure, particularly its electron configuration, for the reasons mentioned above, and also on the temperature. At high temperatures, random thermal motion makes it more difficult for the electrons to maintain alignment.
Topics

Diamagnetism
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Diamagnetism appears in all materials, and is the tendency of a material to oppose an applied magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic field. However, in a material with paramagnetic properties (that is, with a tendency to enhance an external magnetic field), the paramagnetic behavior dominates.[10] Thus, despite its universal occurrence, diamagnetic behavior is observed only in a purely diamagnetic material. In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases, the magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital motions, which can be understood classically as follows:
- When a material is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the nucleus will experience, in addition to their Coulomb attraction to the nucleus, a Lorentz force from the magnetic field. Depending on which direction the electron is orbiting, this force may increase the centripetal force on the electrons, pulling them in towards the nucleus, or it may decrease the force, pulling them away from the nucleus. This effect systematically increases the orbital magnetic moments that were aligned opposite the field, and decreases the ones aligned parallel to the field (in accordance with Lenz's law). This results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an opposite direction to the applied field.
Note that this description is meant only as an heuristic; a proper understanding requires a quantum-mechanical description.
Note that all materials undergo this orbital response. However, in paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, the diamagnetic effect is overwhelmed by the much stronger effects caused by the unpaired electrons.
Paramagnetism
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, i.e. atomic or molecular orbitals with exactly one electron in them. While paired electrons are required by the Pauli exclusion principle to have their intrinsic ('spin') magnetic moments pointing in opposite directions, causing their magnetic fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align its magnetic moment in any direction. When an external magnetic field is applied, these magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the applied field, thus reinforcing it.
Ferromagnetism
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. A ferromagnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired electrons. However, in addition to the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment's tendency to be parallel to an applied field, there is also in these materials a tendency for these magnetic moments to orient parallel to each other to maintain a lowered-energy state. Thus, even when the applied field is removed, the electrons in the material maintain a parallel orientation.
Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual temperature, called the Curie temperature, or Curie point, above which it loses its ferromagnetic properties. This is because the thermal tendency to disorder overwhelms the energy-lowering due to ferromagnetic order.
Some well-known ferromagnetic materials that exhibit easily detectable magnetic properties (to form magnets) are nickel, iron, cobalt, gadolinium and their alloys.
Magnetic domains
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. The magnetic moment of atoms in a ferromagnetic material cause them to behave something like tiny permanent magnets. They stick together and align themselves into small regions of more or less uniform alignment called magnetic domains or Weiss domains. Magnetic domains can be observed with a magnetic force microscope to reveal magnetic domain boundaries that resemble white lines in the sketch. There are many scientific experiments that can physically show magnetic fields.
When a domain contains too many molecules, it becomes unstable and divides into two domains aligned in opposite directions so that they stick together more stably as shown at the right.
When exposed to a magnetic field, the domain boundaries move so that the domains aligned with the magnetic field grow and dominate the structure as shown at the left. When the magnetizing field is removed, the domains may not return to an unmagnetized state. This results in the ferromagnetic material's being magnetized, forming a permanent magnet.
When magnetized strongly enough that the prevailing domain overruns all others to result in only one single domain, the material is magnetically saturated. When a magnetized ferromagnetic material is heated to the Curie point temperature, the molecules are agitated to the point that the magnetic domains lose the organization and the magnetic properties they cause cease. When the material is cooled, this domain alignment structure spontaneously returns, in a manner roughly analogous to how a liquid can freeze into a crystalline solid.
Antiferromagnetism
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. In an antiferromagnet, unlike a ferromagnet, there is a tendency for the intrinsic magnetic moments of neighboring valence electrons to point in opposite directions. When all atoms are arranged in a substance so that each neighbor is 'anti-aligned', the substance is antiferromagnetic. Antiferromagnets have a zero net magnetic moment, meaning no field is produced by them. Antiferromagnets are less common compared to the other types of behaviors, and are mostly observed at low temperatures. In varying temperatures, antiferromagnets can be seen to exhibit diamagnetic and ferrimagnetic properties.
In some materials, neighboring electrons want to point in opposite directions, but there is no geometrical arrangement in which each pair of neighbors is anti-aligned. This is called a spin glass, and is an example of geometrical frustration.
Ferrimagnetism
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Like ferromagnetism, ferrimagnets retain their magnetization in the absence of a field. However, like antiferromagnets, neighboring pairs of electron spins like to point in opposite directions. These two properties are not contradictory, because in the optimal geometrical arrangement, there is more magnetic moment from the sublattice of electrons that point in one direction, than from the sublattice that points in the opposite direction.
Most ferrites are ferrimagnetic. The first discovered magnetic substance, magnetite, is a ferrite and was originally believed to be a ferromagnet; Louis Néel disproved this, however, after discovering ferrimagnetism.
Superparamagnetism
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. When a ferromagnet or ferrimagnet is sufficiently small, it acts like a single magnetic spin that is subject to Brownian motion. Its response to a magnetic field is qualitatively similar to the response of a paramagnet, but much larger.
Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet whose magnetism is produced by the flow of electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current ceases.

Other types of magnetism
Magnetism, electricity, and special relativity
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special relativity, electricity and magnetism are fundamentally interlinked. Both magnetism lacking electricity, and electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with special relativity, due to such effects as length contraction, time dilation, and the fact that the magnetic force is velocity-dependent. However, when both electricity and magnetism are taken into account, the resulting theory (electromagnetism) is fully consistent with special relativity.[8][11] In particular, a phenomenon that appears purely electric to one observer may be purely magnetic to another, or more generally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are dependent on the frame of reference. Thus, special relativity "mixes" electricity and magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagnetism, analogous to how relativity "mixes" space and time into spacetime.
Magnetic fields in a material
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In a vacuum,
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In a material,
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A wholly owned subsidiary of SLP Worldwide, SLP Realty houses 900 associates to service SLP's fast rising portfolio of residential tasks. Real estate is a human-centric trade. Apart from offering comprehensive coaching applications for our associates, SLP Realty puts equal emphasis on creating human capabilities and creating sturdy teamwork throughout all ranges of our organisational hierarchy. Worldwide Presence At SLP International, our staff of execs is pushed to make sure our shoppers meet their enterprise and investment targets. Under is an inventory of some notable shoppers from completely different industries and markets, who've entrusted their real estate must the expertise of SLP Worldwide.
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the constant of proportionality being called the magnetic susceptibility. If so,
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This feature is suitable for you who need to get the tax deductions out of your PIC scheme to your property agency firm. It's endorsed that you visit the correct site for filling this tax return software. This utility must be submitted at the very least yearly to report your whole tax and tax return that you're going to receive in the current accounting 12 months. There may be an official website for this tax filling procedure. Filling this tax return software shouldn't be a tough thing to do for all business homeowners in Singapore.
A wholly owned subsidiary of SLP Worldwide, SLP Realty houses 900 associates to service SLP's fast rising portfolio of residential tasks. Real estate is a human-centric trade. Apart from offering comprehensive coaching applications for our associates, SLP Realty puts equal emphasis on creating human capabilities and creating sturdy teamwork throughout all ranges of our organisational hierarchy. Worldwide Presence At SLP International, our staff of execs is pushed to make sure our shoppers meet their enterprise and investment targets. Under is an inventory of some notable shoppers from completely different industries and markets, who've entrusted their real estate must the expertise of SLP Worldwide.
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There isn't any deal too small. Property agents who are keen to find time for any deal even if the commission is small are the ones you want on your aspect. Additionally they present humbleness and might relate with the typical Singaporean higher. Relentlessly pursuing any deal, calling prospects even without being prompted. Even if they get rejected a hundred times, they still come again for more. These are the property brokers who will find consumers what they need eventually, and who would be the most successful in what they do. 4. Honesty and Integrity
This feature is suitable for you who need to get the tax deductions out of your PIC scheme to your property agency firm. It's endorsed that you visit the correct site for filling this tax return software. This utility must be submitted at the very least yearly to report your whole tax and tax return that you're going to receive in the current accounting 12 months. There may be an official website for this tax filling procedure. Filling this tax return software shouldn't be a tough thing to do for all business homeowners in Singapore.
A wholly owned subsidiary of SLP Worldwide, SLP Realty houses 900 associates to service SLP's fast rising portfolio of residential tasks. Real estate is a human-centric trade. Apart from offering comprehensive coaching applications for our associates, SLP Realty puts equal emphasis on creating human capabilities and creating sturdy teamwork throughout all ranges of our organisational hierarchy. Worldwide Presence At SLP International, our staff of execs is pushed to make sure our shoppers meet their enterprise and investment targets. Under is an inventory of some notable shoppers from completely different industries and markets, who've entrusted their real estate must the expertise of SLP Worldwide.
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Another method by way of which you could find out whether the agent is sweet is by checking the feedback, of the shoppers, on the website. There are various individuals would publish their comments on the web site of the Singapore property agent. You can take a look at these feedback and the see whether it will be clever to hire that specific Singapore property agent. You may even get in contact with the developer immediately. Many Singapore property brokers know the developers and you may confirm the goodwill of the agent by asking the developer. is zero (see Remanence).
Magnetic force

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The phenomenon of magnetism is "mediated" by the magnetic field. An electric current or magnetic dipole creates a magnetic field, and that field, in turn, imparts magnetic forces on other particles that are in the fields.
Maxwell's equations, which simplify to the Biot-Savart law in the case of steady currents, describe the origin and behavior of the fields that govern these forces. Therefore magnetism is seen whenever electrically charged particles are in motion---for example, from movement of electrons in an electric current, or in certain cases from the orbital motion of electrons around an atom's nucleus. They also arise from "intrinsic" magnetic dipoles arising from quantum-mechanical spin.
The same situations that create magnetic fields — charge moving in a current or in an atom, and intrinsic magnetic dipoles — are also the situations in which a magnetic field has an effect, creating a force. Following is the formula for moving charge; for the forces on an intrinsic dipole, see magnetic dipole.
When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field B, it feels a Lorentz force F given by the cross product:[12]
where
Because this is a cross product, the force is perpendicular to both the motion of the particle and the magnetic field. It follows that the magnetic force does no work on the particle; it may change the direction of the particle's movement, but it cannot cause it to speed up or slow down. The magnitude of the force is
where is the angle between v and B.
One tool for determining the direction of the velocity vector of a moving charge, the magnetic field, and the force exerted is labeling the index finger "V", the middle finger "B", and the thumb "F" with your right hand. When making a gun-like configuration, with the middle finger crossing under the index finger, the fingers represent the velocity vector, magnetic field vector, and force vector, respectively. See also right hand rule.
Magnetic dipoles
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. A very common source of magnetic field shown in nature is a dipole, with a "South pole" and a "North pole", terms dating back to the use of magnets as compasses, interacting with the Earth's magnetic field to indicate North and South on the globe. Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet. The Earth's North Magnetic Pole (currently in the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is physically a south pole, as it attracts the north pole of a compass. A magnetic field contains energy, and physical systems move toward configurations with lower energy. When diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, a magnetic dipole tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby lowering the net field strength. When ferromagnetic material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles align to the applied field, thus expanding the domain walls of the magnetic domains.
Magnetic monopoles
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole — if such a thing exists — would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It would act as an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles would carry "magnetic charge" analogous to electric charge. Despite systematic searches since 1931, Template:As of, they have never been observed, and could very well not exist.[13] Nevertheless, some theoretical physics models predict the existence of these magnetic monopoles. Paul Dirac observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a certain symmetry, just as quantum theory predicts that individual positive or negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable. Using quantum theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain the quantization of electric charge---that is, why the observed elementary particles carry charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron. Certain grand unified theories predict the existence of monopoles which, unlike elementary particles, are solitons (localized energy packets). The initial results of using these models to estimate the number of monopoles created in the big bang contradicted cosmological observations — the monopoles would have been so plentiful and massive that they would have long since halted the expansion of the universe. However, the idea of inflation (for which this problem served as a partial motivation) was successful in solving this problem, creating models in which monopoles existed but were rare enough to be consistent with current observations.[14]
Quantum-mechanical origin of magnetism
In principle all kinds of magnetism originate (similar to Superconductivity) from specific quantum-mechanical phenomena (e.g. Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics, in particular the chapters on spin and on the Pauli principle). A successful model was developed already in 1927, by Walter Heitler and Fritz London, who derived quantum-mechanically, how hydrogen molecules are formed from hydrogen atoms, i.e. from the atomic hydrogen orbitals and centered at the nuclei A and B, see below. That this leads to magnetism, is not at all obvious, but will be explained in the following.
According the Heitler-London theory, so-called two-body molecular -orbitals are formed, namely the resulting orbital is:
Here the last product means that a first electron, r1, is in an atomic hydrogen-orbital centered at the second nucleus, whereas the second electron runs around the first nucleus. This "exchange" phenomenon is an expression for the quantum-mechanical property that particles with identical properties cannot be distinguished. It is specific not only for the formation of chemical bonds, but as we will see, also for magnetism, i.e. in this connection the term exchange interaction arises, a term which is essential for the origin of magnetism, and which is stronger, roughly by factors 100 and even by 1000, than the energies arising from the electrodynamic dipole-dipole interaction.
As for the spin function , which is responsible for the magnetism, we have the already mentioned Pauli's principle, namely that a symmetric orbital (i.e. with the + sign as above) must be multiplied with an antisymmetric spin function (i.e. with a − sign), and vice versa. Thus:
I.e., not only and must be substituted by α and β, respectively (the first entity means "spin up", the second one "spin down"), but also the sign + by the − sign, and finally ri by the discrete values si (= ±½); thereby we have and . The "singlet state", i.e. the − sign, means: the spins are antiparallel, i.e. for the solid we have antiferromagnetism, and for two-atomic molecules one has diamagnetism. The tendency to form a (homoeopolar) chemical bond (this means: the formation of a symmetric molecular orbital, i.e. with the + sign) results through the Pauli principle automatically in an antisymmetric spin state (i.e. with the − sign). In contrast, the Coulomb repulsion of the electrons, i.e. the tendency that they try to avoid each other by this repulsion, would lead to an antisymmetric orbital function (i.e. with the − sign) of these two particles, and complementary to a symmetric spin function (i.e. with the + sign, one of the so-called "triplet functions"). Thus, now the spins would be parallel (ferromagnetism in a solid, paramagnetism in two-atomic gases).
The last-mentioned tendency dominates in the metals iron, cobalt and nickel, and in some rare earths, which are ferromagnetic. Most of the other metals, where the first-mentioned tendency dominates, are nonmagnetic (e.g. sodium, aluminium, and magnesium) or antiferromagnetic (e.g. manganese). Diatomic gases are also almost exclusively diamagnetic, and not paramagnetic. However, the oxygen molecule, because of the involvement of π-orbitals, is an exception important for the life-sciences.
The Heitler-London considerations can be generalized to the Heisenberg model of magnetism (Heisenberg 1928).
The explanation of the phenomena is thus essentially based on all subtleties of quantum mechanics, whereas the electrodynamics covers mainly the phenomenology.
Units of electromagnetism
SI units related to magnetism
| SI electromagnetism units | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Symbol[15] | Name of Quantity | Derived Units | Conversion of International to SI base units | |
|
Electric current | ampere (SI base unit) | ||
|
Electric charge | coulomb | ||
| Potential difference; Electromotive force | volt | |||
| Electric resistance; Impedance; Reactance | ohm | |||
| Resistivity | ohm metre | |||
| Electric power | watt | |||
| Capacitance | farad | |||
| Electric field strength | volt per metre | |||
| Electric displacement field | Coulomb per square metre | |||
| Permittivity | farad per metre | |||
| Electric susceptibility | Dimensionless | |||
| Conductance; Admittance; Susceptance | siemens | |||
| Conductivity | siemens per metre | |||
| Magnetic flux density, Magnetic induction | tesla | |||
| Magnetic flux | weber | |||
| Magnetic field strength | ampere per metre | |||
| Inductance | henry | |||
| Permeability | henry per metre | |||
| Magnetic susceptibility | Dimensionless | |||
Other units
- gauss — The gauss is the centimeter-gram-second (CGS) unit of magnetic field (denoted B).
- oersted — The oersted is the CGS unit of magnetizing field (denoted H).
- maxwell — The maxwell is the CGS unit for magnetic flux.
- gamma — is a unit of magnetic flux density that was commonly used before the tesla came into use (1.0 gamma = 1.0 nanotesla)
- μ0 — common symbol for the permeability of free space (4π×10−7 newton/(ampere-turn)2).
Living things
Some organisms can detect magnetic fields, a phenomenon known as magnetoception. Magnetobiology studies magnetic fields as a medical treatment; fields naturally produced by an organism are known as biomagnetism.
See also
References
43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.
Further reading
- 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
External links
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Notice that the application must be submitted by the appointed Key Government Officer (KEO) such as the CEO, COO, or MD. Once the KEO has submitted the mandatory paperwork and assuming all documents are in order, an email notification shall be sent stating that the applying is permitted. No hardcopy of the license might be issued. A delicate-copy could be downloaded and printed by logging into the CEA website. It takes roughly four-6 weeks to course of an utility.
- Template:In Our Time
- The Exploratorium Science Snacks – Snacks about Magnetism
- Electromagnetism - a chapter from an online textbook
- Video: The physicist Richard Feynman answers the question, Why do bar magnets attract or repel each other?
- On the Magnet, 1600 First scientific book on magnetism by the father of electrical engineering. Full English text, full text search.
- ↑ Template:Cite web
- ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - ↑ J B Carlson, "Lodestone Compass: Chinese or Olmec Primacy?", Science. 1975 Sep 5;189(4205):753-60
- ↑ John B. Carlson, "Lodestone compass: Chinese or Olmec primacy?". Science, volume 189, issue 4025, (pages 753-760) (1975) http://www.bcin.ca/Interface/openbcin.cgi?submit=submit&Chinkey=55582
- ↑ Li Shu-hua, “Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole,” Isis, Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.175
- ↑ Li Shu-hua, “Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole,” Isis, Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.176
- ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - ↑ 8.0 8.1 A. Einstein: "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", June 30, 1905.
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑
20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ Milton mentions some inconclusive events (p.60) and still concludes that "no evidence at all of magnetic monopoles has survived" (p.3). One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang. - ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534. - ↑ Template:GreenBookRef2nd