Cellular approximation theorem

In numerical analysis, the Shanks transformation is a non-linear series acceleration method to increase the rate of convergence of a sequence. This method is named after Daniel Shanks, who rediscovered this sequence transformation in 1955. It was first derived and published by R. Schmidt in 1941.

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Formulation

For a sequence $\left\{a_{m}\right\}_{m\in \mathbb {N} }$ the series

$A=\sum _{m=0}^{\infty }a_{m}\,$

is to be determined. First, the partial sum $A_{n}$ is defined as:

$A_{n}=\sum _{m=0}^{n}a_{m}\,$

and forms a new sequence $\left\{A_{n}\right\}_{n\in \mathbb {N} }$. Provided the series converges, $A_{n}$ will approach in the limit to $A$ as $n\to \infty .$ The Shanks transformation $S(A_{n})$ of the sequence $A_{n}$ is defined as

$S(A_{n})={\frac {A_{n+1}\,A_{n-1}\,-\,A_{n}^{2}}{A_{n+1}-2A_{n}+A_{n-1}}}$

and forms a new sequence. The sequence $S(A_{n})$ often converges more rapidly than the sequence $A_{n}.$ Further speed-up may be obtained by repeated use of the Shanks transformation, by computing $S^{2}(A_{n})=S(S(A_{n})),$ $S^{3}(A_{n})=S(S(S(A_{n}))),$ etc.

Note that the non-linear transformation as used in the Shanks transformation is of similar form as used in Aitken's delta-squared process. But while Aitken's method operates on the coefficients $\left\{a_{m}\right\}$ of the original sequence, the Shanks transformation operates on the partial sums $A_{n}.$

Example

Absolute error as a function of $n$ in the partial sums $A_{n}$ and after applying the Shanks transformation once or several times: $S(A_{n}),$ $S^{2}(A_{n})$ and $S^{3}(A_{n}).$ The series used is $\scriptstyle 4\left(1-{\frac {1}{3}}+{\frac {1}{5}}-{\frac {1}{7}}+{\frac {1}{9}}-\cdots \right),$ which has the exact sum $\pi .$

As an example, consider the slowly convergent series

$4\sum _{k=0}^{\infty }(-1)^{k}{\frac {1}{2k+1}}=4\left(1-{\frac {1}{3}}+{\frac {1}{5}}-{\frac {1}{7}}+\cdots \right)$

which has the exact sum π ≈ 3.14159265. The partial sum $A_{6}$ has only one digit accuracy, while six-figure accuracy requires summing about 400,000 terms.

In the table below, the partial sums $A_{n}$, the Shanks transformation $S(A_{n})$ on them, as well as the repeated Shanks transformations $S^{2}(A_{n})$ and $S^{3}(A_{n})$ are given for $n$ up to 12. The figure to the right shows the absolute error for the partial sums and Shanks transformation results, clearly showing the improved accuracy and convergence rate.

$n$	$A_{n}$	$S(A_{n})$	$S^{2}(A_{n})$	$S^{3}(A_{n})$
0	4.00000000	—	—	—
1	2.66666667	3.16666667	—	—
2	3.46666667	3.13333333	3.14210526	—
3	2.89523810	3.14523810	3.14145022	3.14159936
4	3.33968254	3.13968254	3.14164332	3.14159086
5	2.97604618	3.14271284	3.14157129	3.14159323
6	3.28373848	3.14088134	3.14160284	3.14159244
7	3.01707182	3.14207182	3.14158732	3.14159274
8	3.25236593	3.14125482	3.14159566	3.14159261
9	3.04183962	3.14183962	3.14159086	3.14159267
10	3.23231581	3.14140672	3.14159377	3.14159264
11	3.05840277	3.14173610	3.14159192	3.14159266
12	3.21840277	3.14147969	3.14159314	3.14159265

The Shanks transformation $S(A_{1})$ already has two-digit accuracy, while the original partial sums only establish the same accuracy at $A_{24}.$ Remarkably, $S^{3}(A_{3})$ has six digits accuracy, obtained from repeated Shank transformations applied to the first seven terms $A_{0}$, ... , $A_{6}.$ As said before, $A_{n}$ only obtains 6-digit accuracy after about summing 400,000 terms.

Motivation

The Shanks transformation is motivated by the observation that — for larger $n$ — the partial sum $A_{n}$ quite often behaves approximately as

$A_{n}=A+\alpha q^{n},\,$

with $|q|<1$ so that the sequence converges transiently to the series result $A$ for $n\to \infty .$ So for $n-1,$ $n$ and $n+1$ the respective partial sums are:

$A_{n-1}=A+\alpha q^{n-1}\quad ,\qquad A_{n}=A+\alpha q^{n}\qquad {\text{and}}\qquad A_{n+1}=A+\alpha q^{n+1}.$

These three equations contain three unknowns: $A,$ $\alpha$ and $q.$ Solving for $A$ gives

$A={\frac {A_{n+1}\,A_{n-1}\,-\,A_{n}^{2}}{A_{n+1}-2A_{n}+A_{n-1}}}.$

In the (exceptional) case that the denominator is equal to zero: then $A_{n}=A$ for all $n.$

Generalized Shanks transformation

The generalized kth-order Shanks transformation is given as the ratio of the determinants:

$S_{k}(A_{n})={\frac {\begin{vmatrix}A_{n-k}&\cdots &A_{n-1}&A_{n}\\\Delta A_{n-k}&\cdots &\Delta A_{n-1}&\Delta A_{n}\\\Delta A_{n-k+1}&\cdots &\Delta A_{n}&\Delta A_{n+1}\\\vdots &&\vdots &\vdots \\\Delta A_{n-1}&\cdots &\Delta A_{n+k-2}&\Delta A_{n+k-1}\\\end{vmatrix}}{\begin{vmatrix}1&\cdots &1&1\\\Delta A_{n-k}&\cdots &\Delta A_{n-1}&\Delta A_{n}\\\Delta A_{n-k+1}&\cdots &\Delta A_{n}&\Delta A_{n+1}\\\vdots &&\vdots &\vdots \\\Delta A_{n-1}&\cdots &\Delta A_{n+k-2}&\Delta A_{n+k-1}\\\end{vmatrix}}},$

with $\Delta A_{p}=A_{p+1}-A_{p}.$ It is the solution of a model for the convergence behaviour of the partial sums $A_{n}$ with $k$ distinct transients:

$A_{n}=A+\sum _{p=1}^{k}\alpha _{p}q_{p}^{n}.$

This model for the convergence behaviour contains $2k+1$ unknowns. By evaluating the above equation at the elements $A_{n-k},A_{n-k+1},\ldots ,A_{n+k}$ and solving for $A,$ the above expression for the kth-order Shanks transformation is obtained. The first-order generalized Shanks transformation is equal to the ordinary Shanks transformation: $S_{1}(A_{n})=S(A_{n}).$

The generalized Shanks transformation is closely related to Padé approximants and Padé tables.

See also

• Aitken's delta-squared process
• Rate of convergence
• Richardson extrapolation
• sequence transformation

Notes

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References

• Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.
  
  Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.
  
  In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.
  
  Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region
  
  Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.
  
  15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.
  
  To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
• Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.
  
  Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.
  
  In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.
  
  Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region
  
  Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.
  
  15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.
  
  To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
• Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.
  
  Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.
  
  In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.
  
  Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region
  
  Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.
  
  15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.
  
  To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
• Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.
  
  Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.
  
  In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.
  
  Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region
  
  Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.
  
  15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.
  
  To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
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